Assignment: Confidence in The Child Essay

Reflect on Erikson’s stage of trust versus distrust. Have you ever observed this with children and / or have you ever experienced it? How did you overcome it?

1 T-Mobile 4:00 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Language: What Develops in the First Two Years? The human linguistic ability at age 2 far surpasses that of full-grown adults from every other species. Very young infants listen intensely, figuring out speech. One scholar explains, “infants are acquiring much of their native language before they utter their first word” (Aslin, 2012, p. 191). How do they do it? The Universal Sequence The sequence of language development is the same worldwide (see At About This Time). Some children learn several languages, some only one; some learn rapidly, others slowly. But, all follow the same path. Even deaf infants who become able to hear (thanks to cochlear implants) follow the sequence, catching up to their age-mates unless they have other disabilities (Fazzi et al., 2011). Those who learn sign language also follow the same path as hearing infants, at first learning one word at a time and then longer and more complex sentences. Listening and Responding Newborns prefer to listen to the language their mother spoke when they were in the womb. They do not understand the words, of course, but they like the familiar rhythm, sounds, and cadence. Surprisingly, newborns of bilingual mothers differentiate between the two languages (Byers- Heinlein et al., 2010). Data were collected on 94 newborns (age 0 to 5 days) in a large hospital in Vancouver, Canada. Half were born to mothers who spoke both English and Tagalog (a language native to the Philippines), one-third to mothers who spoke only English, and one-sixth to mothers who spoke English and Chinese. The bilingual mothers used English in more formal contexts and Chinese or Tagalog with family. Response for Parents (from p. 173): Remember the three principles of infant memory: real life, motivation, and repetition. Find something children already enjoy that involves fractions—even if they don’t realize it. Perhaps get a pizza and ask them to divide it in half, quarters, eighths, sixteenths, and so on.

The infants in all three groups sucked on a pacifier connected to a recording of 10 minutes of English or Tagalog matched for pitch, duration, and number of syllables. As evident in the frequency and strength of their sucking, most of the infants with bilingual mothers preferred Tagalog. For the Filipino babies, this was probably because their mothers spoke English in formal settings but not when with family and friends, so Tagalog was associated with more animated talk. Those babies with monolingual mothers preferred English, as both formal and informal English sounds were familiar (Byers-Heinlein et al., 2010). Curiously, the Chinese bilingual

mothers’ babies (who had never heard Tagalog) nonetheless preferred it to English. The researchers believe that they liked Tagalog because the rhythm of that language is similar to Chinese (Byers-Heinlein et al., 2010). The same conclusion (that babies prefer familiar language) comes from everyday life. Newborns attend to voices more than to mechanical sounds (a clock ticking) and look closely at the facial expressions of whoever is talking to them (Minagawa-Kawai et al., 2011). By 1 year, they are more likely to imitate the actions of a stranger who speaks their native language than the actions of someone who speaks another language (Buttelmann et al., 2013). 337 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:00 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Piaget’s stage five (12 to 18 months), new means through active experimentation, builds on the accomplishments of stage four. Now goal-directed and purposeful activities become more expansive. Toddlers delight in squeezing all the toothpaste out of the tube, drawing on the wall, or uncovering an anthill—activities they have never observed. Piaget referred to the stage-five toddler as a little scientist” who “experiments in order to see.” “little scientist” The stage-five toddler (age 12 to 18 months) who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration. A 1-year-old’s research method is trial and error. Their devotion to discovery is familiar to every adult scientist—and to every parent. Watch out: protection needed. Finally, in the sixth stage (18 to 24 months), toddlers use mental combinations, intellectual experimentation via imagination that can supersede the active experimentation of stage five. Because they combine ideas, stage-six toddlers think about consequences, hesitating a moment before yanking the cat’s tail or dropping a raw egg on the floor.

They store what they have seen in memory and do it later, an ability Piaget called deferred imitation. The ability to combine ideas allows stage-six toddlers to pretend. For instance, they know that a doll is not a real baby, but they can belt it into a stroller and take it for a walk. Newer research finds that some accomplishments that Piaget pegged for stage six—including pretending and imitation—begin much earlier. Especially for Parents One parent wants to put all the breakable or dangerous objects away because the toddler is able to move around independently. The other parent says that the baby should learn not to touch certain things. Who is right? (see response, p. 170) Piaget was right to describe babies as avid and active learners who “learn so fast and so well” (Xu & Kushnir. 2013, p. 28). His main mistake was underestimating how rapidly their learning occurs. WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED? 1. What is a circular reaction? 2. Why did Piaget call his first stage of cognition sensorimotor intelligence? 3. How do the first two sensorimotor stages illustrate primary circular reactions? 4. How does a stage-three infant make interesting events last? 5. How is object permanence an example of stage four of sensorimotor intelligence? 6. In sensorimotor intelligence, what is the difference between stages five and six? 7. What implications for caregivers come from Piaget’s description of sensorimotor intelligence? 8. What evidence suggests that infants are thinking, not just reacting, before age 1? Response for Parents (from p. 166): Both decisions should be made within the first month, during the stage of reflexes. If parents wait until the infant is 4 months or older, they may discover that they are 327 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:00 PM < := Q A The Developing Person through Childh… too late. It is difficult to introduce a bottle to a 4-month-old who has never sucked on an artificial nipple or a pacifier to a baby who has already adapted the sucking reflex to a thumb. 328 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:29 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Weight of Girls and Boys, Birth to 24 Months Weight in 16 kilograms 14 35.2 Weight in pounds BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBS 30.8 12 26.4 10 22.0 8 17.6 4 6 Girls Boys 13.2 nu 90th percentile 8.8 w 50th percentile 2 w 10th percentile 4.4 0 0 Birth 1 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Age in months Figure 5.1 Berger, The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 11e, 2018 Worth Publishers FIGURE 5.1 Averages and Individuals Norms and percentiles are useful—most 1-month-old girls who weigh 10 pounds should be at least 25 pounds by age 2. But although females weigh less than males on average lifelong, individuals do not always follow the norms. Do you know a 200-pound woman married to a 150-pound man? Growth is often expressed in a percentile, indicating how one person compares to another. Thus, a 12-month-old’s weight at the 30th percentile means that 29 percent of 12-month-old babies weigh less and 69 percent weigh more. Healthy babies vary in size, so any percentile between 10 and 90 is okay, as long as the percentile is close to the previous one for that individual. percentile A point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. The 50th percentile is the midpoint; half the people in the population being studied rank higher and half rank lower. When an infant’s percentile moves markedly up or down, that could signify trouble. A notable drop, say from the 50th to the 20th percentile, suggests poor nutrition. A sudden increase, perhaps from the 30th to the 60th percentile, signifies overfeeding. Parents were once blamed. Especially when the percentile dropped, it was thought that parents made feeding stressful, leading to failure to thrive. Now pediatricians consider it “outmoded” to blame parents, because failure to thrive may be caused by allergies, the microbiome, or other medical conditions (Jaffe, 2011, p. 100). Similarly, obesity is now thought to be cultural and genetic, as well as familial. Overweight babies are still problematic, but blaming parents alone is neither fair nor helpful. 271 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:29 PM < := 市 Q A The Developing Person through Childh… waves. Sleep varies not only because of biology (maturation and genes) but also because of caregivers. Infants who are fed cow’s milk and cereal may sleep more soundly-easier for parents but bad for the baby. Social environment matters: If parents respond to predawn cries with food and play, babies wake up early and often, night after night (Sadeh et al., 2009). Insufficient sleep becomes a problem for parents as well as for infants, because “[p]arents are rarely well-prepared for the degree of sleep disruption a newborn infant engenders, and many have unrealistic expectations about the first few postnatal months.” As a result, many parents become “desperate” and institute patterns they may later regret (C. Russell et al., 2013, p. 68). Where Should Babies Sleep? Traditionally, most middle-class North American infants slept in cribs in their own rooms; it was feared that they would be traumatized if their parents had sex in the same room. By contrast, most infants in Asia, Africa, and Latin America slept near their parents, a practice called co- sleeping, and sometimes in their parents’ bed, called bed-sharing. In those cultures, nighttime parent-child separation was considered cruel. co-sleeping A custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room. bed-sharing When two or more people sleep in the same bed. Today, Asian and African mothers still worry more about separation, whereas European and North American mothers worry more about privacy. A 19-nation survey found that parents act on these fears: The extremes were 82 percent of Vietnamese babies co-sleeping compared with 6 percent in New Zealand (Mindell et al., 2010) (see Figure 5.2). Although in general co-sleeping is more common in nations with high poverty rates, income is not the main determinant: In Japan -one of the wealthiest nations in the world-families often sleep together. 273 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:29 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Australia Canada China Hong Kong Indonesia Japan Malaysia New Zealand Philippines Thailand Taiwan United Kingdom United States Vietnam 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Percent co-sleeping Data from Mindell et al., 2010, Figure 5.2 Berger, The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 11e, 2018 Worth Publishers FIGURE 5.2 Awake at Night Why the disparity between Asian and non-Asian rates of co-sleeping? It may be that Western parents use a variety of gadgets and objects—monitors, night-lights, pacifiers, cuddle cloths, sound machines—to accomplish some of what Asian parents do by having their infant next to them. Response for New Parents (from p. 137): From the psychological and cultural perspectives, babies can sleep anywhere as long as the parents can hear them if they cry. The main consideration is safety: Infants should not sleep on a mattress that is too soft, nor beside an adult who is drunk or on drugs. Otherwise, families should decide for themselves, remembering that early learning tends to endure. Cohort is significant: In the United States, bed-sharing doubled from 1993 to 2010, from 6.5 percent to 13.5 percent (Colson et al., 2013). The infant’s feeding patterns also have an effect: Bed-sharing is more common in breast-feeding mothers and in babies who wake often at night. A study in Sweden of preterm infants (who need to be fed every two or three hours) found that most slept with their mothers—especially if the mother had trouble getting back to sleep if she got up to feed her infant (Blomqvist et al., 2017). The argument for co-sleeping is that the parents can quickly respond to a hungry or frightened baby. Indeed, a popular book on infant care advocates “attachment parenting,” advising keeping the infant nearby day and night (Sears & Sears, 2001). Responsive attachment correlates with co- sleeping (Kim et al., 2017). However, when co-sleeping results in bed-sharing, that doubles the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), when a baby dies unexpectedly while asleep (Vennemann et al.2012). Some pediatricians therefore advise against co-sleeping, although such advice may be ignored by tired mothers, especially those in cultures where bed-sharing is the norm. Consequently, many experts seek ways to safeguard the practice of bed-sharing (Ball & Volpe, 2013). Their advice includes never sleeping beside a baby if the parent has been drinking, and never using a soft comforter, pillow, or mattress near a sleeping infant. 274 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:30 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Neuroscience Vocabulary To understand the impressive brain growth that occurs throughout childhood, it is helpful to know some basic terms of neurological development (see Visualizing Development, p. 143). Communication within the central nervous system (CNS)—the brain and spinal cord—begins with nerve cells, called neurons. At birth, the human brain has about 86 billion. neuron One of billions of nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain. Within and between areas of the CNS, neurons are connected to other neurons by intricate networks of nerve fibers called axons and dendrites. Each neuron has a single axon and numerous dendrites, which spread out like the branches of a tree. Most of the brain growth in infancy consists of increases in dendrites. axon A fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons. dendrite A fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons. The axon of one neuron meets the dendrites of other neurons at intersections called synapses, which are critical communication links within the brain. Brain development in infancy is “characterized by overproduction of synapses followed by a period of gradual pruning” (Bernier et al. 2016, p. 1159). Synapse formation and demise is remarkably plastic and is heavily dependent on experience. synapse The intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons. Neurons communicate by firing, or sending electrochemical impulses through their axons to synapses to be picked up by the dendrites of other neurons. The dendrites bring the message to the cell bodies of their neurons, which, in turn, may fire, conveying messages via their axons to the dendrites of other neurons. Some firing is involuntary—such as the reflexes cited in Chapter 4. Most infant brain development requires new connections between one neuron and another, as dendrites grow (Gao et al., 2016). Axons and dendrites do not touch at synapses. Instead, the electrical impulses in axons typically cause the release of neurotransmitters, which stimulate other neurons. There are more than 100 neurotransmitters, although the exact number is not known. neurotransmitter A brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters carry information from the axon of the sending neuron, across a pathway called the synaptic gap, to the dendrites of the receiving neuron, a process speeded up by myelin, a coating on the outside of the axon. Myelin increases over childhood—lack of it is one reason infants are slow to react to something 277 of 1210 Il T-Mobile 4:30 PM < := Q A The Developing Person through Childh… • Experience-dependent growth. Human brains are quite plastic, as was also explained in Chapter 1. Particular brain connections grow as specific experiences occur. These experiences are not essential: They happen in some families and cultures but not in others. experience-expectant Brain functions that require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally. experience-dependent Brain functions that depend on particular, variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in a particular infant. The basic, expected experiences must happen for normal brain maturation to occur, and they almost always do. For example, in deserts and in the Arctic, on isolated farms and in crowded cities, almost all babies have things to see, objects to manipulate, and people to love them. Babies everywhere welcome expected experiences: They look around, they grab for objects, they smile at people. As a result, babies’ brains develop. Without such expected experiences, their brains wither. VISUALIZING DEVELOPMENT Nature, Nurture, and the Brain The mechanics of neurological functioning are varied and complex; neuroscientists hypothesize, experiment, and discover more each day. Brain development begins with genes and other biological elements, but hundreds of epigenetic factors affect brain development from the first to the final minutes of life. Particularly important in human development are experiences: Plasticity means that dendrites form or atrophy in response to nutrients and events. The effects of early nurturing experiences are lifelong, as proven many times in mice; research on humans suggests similar effects. NATURE Human brains are three times as large per body weight and take years longer to mature than the brains of any other mammal, but the basics of brains are the same from mouse to elephant. New dendrites form and unused ones die—especially in infancy and adolescence. Brain plasticity is lifelong. 282 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:30 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Birds inherit genes that produce the neurons they need, perhaps dedicated to learning new songs (canaries) or to finding hidden seeds (chickadees). That is experience-expectant: Songs and seeds are essential for those species. Then, depending on their ecological niche, birds depend on specific experiences with learning songs or finding seeds. Especially for Parents of Grown Children Suppose you realize that you seldom talked to your children until they talked to you and that you often put them in cribs and playpens. Did you limit their brain growth and their sensory capacity? (see response, p. 146) Indeed, human babies learn language in much the same way as birds learn songs (Prather et al., 2017). Unless something is seriously wrong, adults talk to babies, whose brains expect language. But the particular language depends on the specific culture. Another human example comes from face recognition: All infants need to see faces (experience-expectant), but which particular face differences they notice depends on who they see (experience-dependent), as the following box explains. Harming the Infant Body and Brain Thus far, we have focused on the many harmless variations that families offer babies; most infants develop well. Feeding and health care vary, but every family tries to ensure that their children survive in good health and thrive within their culture. For brain development, it does not matter whether a person learns French or Farsi, or expresses emotions dramatically or subtly (e.g., throwing themselves to the floor or merely pursing their lips, a cultural difference). However, infant brains do not grow normally if they lack basic, expected experiences. Necessary Stimulation Some adults imagine that babies need quiet, perhaps in a room painted one neutral color. That is a mistake. Babies need stimulation-sights and sounds, emotional expression, and social interaction that encourages movement (arm waving, then crawling, grabbing, and walking). Severe lack of stimulation stunts the brain. As one review explains, “enrichment and deprivation studies provide powerful evidence of … widespread effects of experience on the complexity and function of the developing system” of the brain (Stiles & Jernigan, 2010, p. 345). A VIEW FROM SCIENCE Face Recognition Unless you have prosopagnosia (face blindness), the fusiform face area of your brain is astonishingly adept. Newborns are even quicker to recognize a face that they have seen just once than are older children and adults (Zeifman, 2013). They have no idea which faces are important, so they are primed to stare intently at all of them—unlike adults, who know they can glance at hundreds in a crowd without paying much attention, unless they happen to recognize someone. Because of experience-expectancies, every face is fascinating early in life: Babies stare at pictures of monkey faces and photos of human ones, at drawings and toys with faces, as well as at live faces. Soon, experience-dependent learning begins (de Heering et al. 2010). By 3 months, babies smile readily at familiar 285 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:30 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Some infants experience the opposite problem, too much of the wrong kind of stimulation. If the brain produces an overabundance of cortisol (the stress hormone) early in life (as when an infant is frequently terrified), that derails the connections from parts of the brain, causing atypical responses to stress lifelong. Years later, that child or adult may be hypervigilant (always on the alert) or emotionally flat (never happy or sad). Note that these infants respond to emotions, even without physical pain. Occasional pains or stresses—from routine inoculations, brief hunger, an unwanted bath or diaper change-are part of normal infant life. High intensity and frequency of pains or stresses are not normal, and they can lead to a harmful flood of stress hormones (Propper & Holochwost, 2013). Understanding this distinction is crucial for caregivers. All babies cry. Because the prefrontal cortex has not yet developed, infants cannot decide to stop crying on command. In this case, the stress hormones are in the adults, who might react without thinking because of their stress. Some adults yell at their babies (which may terrify the baby), or even worse, shake them. The ruptured blood vessels and broken neural connections that result are referred to as shaken baby syndrome, an example of abusive head trauma (Christian & Block. 2009). Death is the worst consequence of shaken baby syndrome; lifelong intellectual impairment is the more likely one. shaken baby syndrome A life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections. Not every infant who has neurological symptoms of head trauma is the victim of abuse: Legal experts worry about false accusations (Byard, 2014). Nonetheless, infants are vulnerable, so the response to a screaming, frustrating baby should be to comfort or walk away, never to shake, yell, or hit. 287 of 1210 EN 1 T-Mobile 4:34 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Perceiving and Moving Young human infants combine motor ineptness with sensory acuteness (Konner. 2010). What a contrast to kittens, for instance, who are born deaf, with eyes sealed shut, and who can walk immediately. For humans, senses are crucial from birth on; movement skills take months and years. Thus, newborns listen and look from day 1, and then they gradually develop skill movements by practicing whatever they can do. The interaction between the senses and movement is continuous in the early months, with every sensation propelling the infant to attempt new motor skills. Here are the specifics. The Senses All the senses function at birth. Newborns have open eyes, sensitive ears, and responsive noses, tongues, and skin. Indeed, very young babies use all their senses to attend to everything. For instance, in the first months of life, they smile at everyone and suck almost anything in their mouths. Sensation occurs when a sensory system detects a stimulus, as when the inner ear reverberates with sound, or the eye’s retina and pupil intercept light. Thus, sensations begin when an outer organ (eye, ear, nose, tongue, or skin) meets anything that can be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched. sensation The response of a sensory organ (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus. Left Right Zephyr/Science Source From Sound to Language Hearing occurs in the temporal lobe, in both hemispheres, the green and some of the red parts of the brain. Language comprehension, however, is mostly in the left hemisphere, here shown in the brown region that responds to known words, and Broca’s area, the red bulb that produces speech. A person could hear but not understand (a baby) or understand but not speak (if Broca’s area is damaged). Genetic selection over more than 100,000 years affects all the senses. Humans cannot hear what mice hear, or see what bats see, or smell what puppies smell; humans do not need those sensory abilities. However, survival requires babies to respond to people, and newborns innately 290 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:35 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Hispanic American babies when it comes to walking. In turn, Hispanic American babies are ahead of those of European descent. Internationally, the earliest walkers are in sub-Saharan Africa, where many well-nourished and healthy babies walk at 10 months. As found in detailed studies in Senegal and Kenya, babies in many African communities are massaged and stretched from birth onward and are encouraged to walk as soon as possible (Super et al., 2011). They do so long before a year after birth (Adolph & Franchak, 2017). The latest walkers may be in rural China (15 months), where infants are bundled up against the cold (Adolph & Robinson, 2013). The other reason some cultures discourage walking is that some places are rife with danger (poisonous snakes, open fires), so toddlers are safer if they cannot wander. By contrast, some cultures encourage running over long distances: Their children can run marathons (Adolph & Franchak, 2017). Remember that difference is not deficit. However, slow development relative to local norms may indicate a problem that needs attention; lags are much easier to remedy during infancy than later on. Also remember the dynamic systems of senses and motor skills: If one sense or motor skill is impaired, other parts are affected as well. This is true throughout childhood: Fine motor skills are aided by the ability to sit; language development depends on hearing; reading depends on vision so careful monitoring of basic sensory and motor skills in infancy is part of good infant care. WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED? 1. What particular sounds and patterns do infants pay attention to? 2. How does an infant’s vision change over the first year? 3. Why is hearing more acute than vision in the early weeks? 4. Why do some babies prefer certain tastes and smells that others dislike? 5. What is known and unknown about infant pain? 6. What is universal and what is cultural in the development of gross motor skills? 7. What is the relationship between motor skills and the senses? 8. Why do caregivers vary in which motor skills they encourage? 300 of 1210 Il T-Mobile 4:35 PM < := Q A The Developing Person through Childh… in that part of Australia. Genetic? Most experts thought so. But Beal’s notes revealed that almost all SIDS babies died while sleeping on their stomachs, contrary to the Chinese custom of placing infants on their backs to sleep. She developed a new hypothesis: Sleeping position mattered. To test her hypothesis, Beal convinced a large group of non-Chinese parents to put their newborns to sleep on their backs. Almost none of them died suddenly. After several years of gathering data, she drew a surprising conclusion: Back-sleeping protected against SIDS. Her published report (Beal. 1988) caught the attention of doctors in the Netherlands, where pediatricians had told parents to put their babies to sleep on their stomachs. Two Dutch scientists (Engelberts & de Jonge. 1990) recommended back-sleeping; thousands of parents took heed. SIDS was reduced in the Netherlands by 40 percent in one year—a stunning replication. In the United States, Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care, first published in 1946, sold more copies than any book other than the Bible. He advised stomach-sleeping, and millions of parents followed that advice. In 1984, SIDS killed 5,245 babies in the United States. But Beal’s 1988 article and the Netherlands’ 1990 data caught on in the United States. By 1994, a “Back to Sleep” campaign cut the SIDS rate dramatically (Kinney & Thach. 2009; Mitchell, 2009). By 1996, the U.S. SIDS rate was one-half what it had been. In 2015, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported just 1,600 SIDS deaths, even though the population of infants has increased over the past decades (see Figure 5.6). Consequently, in the United States alone, about 100,000 people are alive who would be dead if they had been born before 1990. SIDS Deaths per 100,000 Live Births – United States 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1978 1983 1986 1987 1988 1989 1993 1997 2001 2002 2004 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year Data from Xu et al., December 2016; Murphy et al., December 2015; Hoyert & Xu, 2012: Murphy et al., 2012: Kochanek et al., 2011; Minino et al., 2007Hoyert et al., 2005; Mathews et al., 2003; Gardner & Hudson, 1996; Macdorman & Rosenberg, 1993; Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 1980. Figure 5.6 Berger, The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 11, 2018 Worth Publishers FIGURE 5.6 Alive Today As more parents learn that a baby should be on his or her “back to sleep,” the SIDS rate continues to decrease. Other factors are also responsible for the decline- fewer parents smoke cigarettes in the baby’s room. Stomach-sleeping is a proven, replica I risk, but it is not the only one. Other risks include low birthweight, winter, being male, exposure to cigarettes, soft blankets or pillows, bed-sharing, and physical abnormalities in the brain stem, heart, mitochondria, microbiome) (Neary & Breckenridge, 2013; Ostfeld et al., 2010). Most SIDS victims experience several risks, a cascade of biological and social circumstances. That does not surprise Susan Beal. She sifted through all the evidence and found the main risk-stomach- sleeping—but she continues to study other factors. She praises the courage of the hundreds of parents who talked with her just hours after their baby died. The entire world praises her. Immunization Diseases that could be deadly (including measles, chicken pox, polio, mumps, rotavirus, and whooping cough) are now rare because of immunization, which primes the body’s immune 304 of 1210 1 T-Mobile 4:34 PM < := Q W The Developing Person through Childh… Once toddlers are able to walk by themselves, they practice obsessively, barefoot or not, at home or in stores, on sidewalks or streets, on lawns or in mud. This depends a great deal on caregivers providing the opportunity-holding them to walk-in the bath, after diapering, around the house, on the sidewalk. Indeed, “practice, not merely maturation, underlies improvements. . . . In 1 hour of free play, the average toddler takes about 2400 steps, travels the length of about 8 U.S. football fields, and falls 17 times” (Adolph & Franchak, 2017). Fine Motor Skills Small body movements are called fine motor skills. The most valued fine motor skills are finger movements, enabling humans to write, draw, type, tie, and so on. Movements of the tongue, jaw, lips, and toes are fine movements, too. fine motor skills Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. (The word fine here means “small.”) Regarding hand skills, newborns have a strong reflexive grasp but lack control. During their first two months, babies excitedly stare and wave their arms at objects dangling within reach. By 3 months, they can usually touch such objects, but because of limited eye-hand coordination, they cannot yet grab and hold on unless an object is placed in their hands. LaunchPad macmillan learning Video: Fine Motor Skills in Infancy and Toddlerhood shows the sequence in which babies and toddlers acquire fine motor skills. Vava Vladimir Jovanovic/Shutterstock Success At 6 months, this baby is finally able to grab her toes. From a developmental perspective, this achievement is as significant as walking, as it requires coordination of feet and fingers. Note her expression of determination and concentration. AT ABOUT THIS TIME 298 of 1210

Important information for writing discussion questions and participation

Welcome to class

Hello class and welcome to the class and I will be your instructor for this course. This is a -week course and requires a lot of time commitment, organization, and a high level of dedication. Please use the class syllabus to guide you through all the assignments required for the course. I have also attached the classroom policies to this announcement to know your expectations for this course. Please review this document carefully and ask me any questions if you do. You could email me at any time or send me a message via the “message” icon in halo if you need to contact me. I check my email regularly, so you should get a response within 24 hours. If you have not heard from me within 24 hours and need to contact me urgently, please send a follow up text to

I strongly encourage that you do not wait until the very last minute to complete your assignments. Your assignments in weeks 4 and 5 require early planning as you would need to present a teaching plan and interview a community health provider. I advise you look at the requirements for these assignments at the beginning of the course and plan accordingly. I have posted the YouTube link that explains all the class assignments in detail. It is required that you watch this 32-minute video as the assignments from week 3 through 5 require that you follow the instructions to the letter to succeed. Failure to complete these assignments according to instructions might lead to a zero. After watching the video, please schedule a one-on-one with me to discuss your topic for your project by the second week of class. Use this link to schedule a 15-minute session. Please, call me at the time of your appointment on my number. Please note that I will NOT call you.

Please, be advised I do NOT accept any assignments by email. If you are having technical issues with uploading an assignment, contact the technical department and inform me of the issue. If you have any issues that would prevent you from getting your assignments to me by the deadline, please inform me to request a possible extension. Note that working fulltime or overtime is no excuse for late assignments. There is a 5%-point deduction for every day your assignment is late. This only applies to approved extensions. Late assignments will not be accepted.

If you think you would be needing accommodations due to any reasons, please contact the appropriate department to request accommodations.

Plagiarism is highly prohibited. Please ensure you are citing your sources correctly using APA 7th edition. All assignments including discussion posts should be formatted in APA with the appropriate spacing, font, margin, and indents. Any papers not well formatted would be returned back to you, hence, I advise you review APA formatting style. I have attached a sample paper in APA format and will also post sample discussion responses in subsequent announcements.

Your initial discussion post should be a minimum of 200 words and response posts should be a minimum of 150 words. Be advised that I grade based on quality and not necessarily the number of words you post. A minimum of TWO references should be used for your initial post. For your response post, you do not need references as personal experiences would count as response posts. If you however cite anything from the literature for your response post, it is required that you cite your reference. You should include a minimum of THREE references for papers in this course. Please note that references should be no more than 5 years old except recommended as a resource for the class. Furthermore, for each discussion board question, you need ONE initial substantive response and TWO substantive responses to either your classmates or your instructor for a total of THREE responses. There are TWO discussion questions each week, hence, you need a total minimum of SIX discussion posts for each week. I usually post a discussion question each week. You could also respond to these as it would count towards your required SIX discussion posts for the week.

I understand this is a lot of information to cover in 5 weeks, however, the Bible says in Philippians 4:13 that we can do all things through Christ that strengthens us. Even in times like this, we are encouraged by God’s word that we have that ability in us to succeed with His strength. I pray that each and every one of you receives strength for this course and life generally as we navigate through this pandemic that is shaking our world today. Relax and enjoy the course!

Hi Class,

Please read through the following information on writing a Discussion question response and participation posts.

Contact me if you have any questions.

Important information on Writing a Discussion Question

• Your response needs to be a minimum of 150 words (not including your list of references)
• There needs to be at least TWO references with ONE being a peer reviewed professional journal article.
• Include in-text citations in your response
• Do not include quotes—instead summarize and paraphrase the information
• Follow APA-7th edition
• Points will be deducted if the above is not followed

Participation –replies to your classmates or instructor

• A minimum of 6 responses per week, on at least 3 days of the week.
• Each response needs at least ONE reference with citations—best if it is a peer reviewed journal article
• Each response needs to be at least 75 words in length (does not include your list of references)
• Responses need to be substantive by bringing information to the discussion or further enhance the discussion. Responses of “I agree” or “great post” does not count for the word count.
• Follow APA 7th edition
• Points will be deducted if the above is not followed

• Remember to use and follow APA-7th edition for all weekly assignments, discussion questions, and participation points.
• Here are some helpful links
• The is a great resource