3 Early Childhood Program Models David Kostelnik/Pearson Education, Inc. In This Chapter You Will • List the key characteristics of the Montessori program. • Describe the High/Scope curriculum for infant/ toddler, preschool, and primary classrooms. • Discuss Waldorf education and its application to young children. • Explain the Bank Street model for early education. • Name the elements of the Reggio Emilia program and its applications in the United States. Amanda is taking her first course in early childhood education and is trying to make sense of different program approaches. This morning she is observing at a local child care center. After watching the teacher interact with children, Amanda’s instructor wants her to talk to the teacher about the program approach she follows. Observation, Wednesday, 7:30 a.m. Jack and his preschool teacher are looking at a well-loved dinosaur book. He points to a picture of a T-Rex and says: Jack (age 2.5 yrs): Dinosaurs “impressed”! Dahlia (teacher): Yes, the dinosaurs are impressive! Jack: Yeah, dinosaurs impressive! Dahlia: Why do you think they are impressive? Jack: BIG TEETH! Dahlia: You noticed a lot Jack. What else do you see? Later that morning, Amanda was able to interview the teacher about her work with Jack. Amanda wrote, under “Interpretation”: This teacher has been observing Jack to learn about his interests in order to support his language development. When she observed that he usually asked for the same dinosaur book each morning, she made sure it was displayed on the bookshelf in the cozy area of the classroom. Early Childhood Programs Essay

The teacher told me that early morning was a good time for her to have an extended conversation with Jack and expand on his comments. After just three days, she is pleased that Jack is already using more descriptive language. In talking to the teacher after the observation, Amanda found that this caregiver likes to combine ideas from different program approaches. Amanda also realized that what she observed fit the developmentally appropriate strategies that many of the modern approaches advocate. As Amanda left the child-care center, she was excited to have seen a veteran educator enhance a young child’s language through an intentional conversation and observe elements of several program models in action. M03_HENN3718_06_SE_C03.indd 61 9/21/16 12:10 AM 62 Chapter 3 T he issues you face as you read this chapter will probably mirror those that Amanda identified in the preceding scenario. Several clearly defined models for early care and education are currently in practice; making conclusive judgments about them without indepth study, however, is difficult. Also, pure models of the different approaches are hard to find, making it unlikely that you can observe each of the models in action. Although it is difficult to find examples of the models described here, you need to be aware of the different program options used to educate young children and understand their similarities and differences. As you read about the different models, see if you can identify the common features that promote development and learning. Also, take time to think about which models appeal to you personally, and plan to learn more about them later. Remember, this is just the beginning point for your understanding of early care and education. This chapter presents an overview of five major early childhood program models and discusses the key elements of each. These options significantly influence the philosophy and approach to learning that occurs in early childhood programs across the country. Figure 3.1 summarizes the key features of each approach. Early Childhood Programs Essay

The Montessori Program The teaching and writing of Maria Montessori led to a unique model for early learning that has had a significant influence on the methods and materials used by early childhood professionals today. As with each of the models described in this chapter, the Montessori approach has both strong supporters and vocal critics (Roopnarine & Johnson, 2009). Figure 3.1 Key Features of Five Early Childhood Programs Program Key Features Montessori education Work experiences rather than play. Special materials for specific learning tasks. Carefully prepared classroom environment. High/Scope program Based on the theory of Jean Piaget. Use of a plan-do-review sequence. Classroom organized into centers. Emphasis on cognitive development. Waldorf education Began with the work of Rudolf Steiner. Believe in the unity between the spirit, body, and mind. Uncluttered, warm, homelike, and aesthetically pleasing spaces. Bank Street model All aspects of child development are addressed in the curriculum. Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Dewey all influence the model. Commercial equipment supplemented with teacher-made and child-made materials. Emphasis is on an integrated curriculum. Reggio Emilia approach Emphasis on in-depth projects to facilitate learning. A workshop area is used to record in visual form what is learned. Families are expected to share responsibilities in educating children. Strong collaboration exists among staff members. Early Childhood Program Models 63 Montessori education began as a program for children from 4 to 7 years of age in low-income families. Today, the principles of this approach are being used with infant/toddler through high-school-age students. Although most of these options are private schools for predominantly middleclass students, approximately 200 public school programs in the United States and Canada are using the Montessori method (North American Montessori Teachers Association, 2014). Montessori programs in the United States are generally associated with one of two major organizations. The American Montessori Society is a group of educators in the United States dedicated to implementThis Montessori teacher shows students how to complete their ing the ideas of Montessori in this country. work tasks. This association has taken Montessori’s Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock methods and materials and modified them where needed for use in American schools in an attempt to make the approach more widely accepted here (American Montessori Society, 2014). The more traditional methods and materials that Montessori developed are promoted through the Association Montessori International. Montessori programs throughout Europe, India, and the rest of the world generally associate themselves with this organization. Some ­American programs also affiliate with the international association (Association Montessori International/U.S.A, 2014). Montessori’s Work Experiences One major difference between Montessori education and many other early childhood ­programs in the United States is the emphasis on work tasks rather than play times (Montessori, 1965). Early Childhood Programs Essay

Although these concepts share similarities, the differences are significant. Although children are free to choose the materials they want to spend time with during work times, these items are used in very specific ways. Before the child is allowed to spend time independently on a task, the adult demonstrates how the materials are to be used. Precise steps are clearly presented, and any deviations from these procedures result in a new demonstration of the task by the early childhood professional or redirection into a different work activity. When children are developmentally ready to use the task in the prescribed way, they are then free to use the materials during choice times. An example of a work task used in Montessori classrooms is the spooning of dried peas. On a child-sized tray, the Montessori professional organizes two bowls (one filled with dried peas) and a spoon. When a child shows interest in these materials, the adult carefully demonstrates how the child should place the bowls, hold the spoon, and move the peas from one bowl to the next without spilling. Once the child has demonstrated appropriate spooning techniques, he is then free to engage in this work task as often as he wants. Very different from Montessori’s work tasks are the play experiences found in most preschool programs. Play tends to be much more open-ended than the learning opportunities designed by Montessori. Children have many choices of interesting materials and use those toys and equipment in their own unique ways. Play materials usually do not require demonstration by the adult. Early Childhood Programs Essay

Children understand their use and 64 Chapter 3 simply take them from their storage location and engage in play. A set of wooden blocks, for example, is an excellent play material that leads to building castles, roads, towers, or anything else that comes to mind. The Celebrating Play feature found in this section compares the thinking used in creative play with thought processes in Montessori’s work tasks. Read the feature now and respond to the questions posed as you continue to learn about Montessori methods and materials. Montessori Materials Montessori’s ideas of work and play and her views of child growth and development provide a clear rationale for the materials in Montessori settings. Because of her work with poor children in the slums of Rome, Montessori felt very strongly that the materials used in her programs should be beautiful (Lillard, 1996). They were constructed with care from only the finest woods and other materials and carefully finished to look and feel good to children. For many of her children, this equipment was one of very few contacts with truly beautiful materials. Montessori designed her equipment with other specific characteristics in mind as well (Standing, 1962): • Careful attention to concept development. Each piece of equipment was designed to teach specific concepts to children as they used them. • Graduated difficulty/complexity. As children develop, they need increasingly challenging materials to stimulate their continued growth. Celebrating Play . . . Encouraging Divergent Thinking Although the work tasks described in this section by Montessori can definitely benefit children and their development, many early childhood educators emphasize the values of play experiences for young children. For example, Doris Fromberg (2002), in her book Play and Meaning in Early Childhood Education, describes astrophysicist Michio Kaku’s projections for the kinds of thinking needed by adults in the 21st century. Adults need to do three important things: 1. See more than one answer to a question. 2. Identify creative solutions and act on them. 3. Adjust to a rapidly changing world. Flexibility, collaboration, and being comfortable with the unpredictable are all characteristics adults need in the future. Fromberg goes on to say that play is the vehicle that young children use to develop these skills. When children play, rather than engaging in the convergent thinking associated with Montessori tasks, they are engaged in a process of divergent thinking that allows them to resolve the dilemmas they face in daily life. Take, for example, Irina, a 4-year-old preschool child playing in the art center. She has been working on her painting for the past 20 minutes and is carefully painting with red, blue, and yellow colors to fill her easel paper. Irina accidentally mixes colors and finds that when she does it leads to new and interesting options. As she gets excited about her discovery, she experiments with new combinations to find out the colors that result. Through her play, Irina is developing the skills she will need to be a creative, problem-solving adult. 1. Reread the sections in this chapter describing Montessori’s work tasks and the section on play experiences. Compare and contrast work tasks and play. What are the similarities and differences? 2. Early Childhood Programs Essay

As a future early childhood professional, are you more likely to promote work tasks as defined by Montessori or more open-ended play experiences? Give a rationale for your preference. Is there room for both play and work tasks in early childhood settings? Why or why not? Early Childhood Program Models 65 • Self-correction. Whenever possible, Montessori-designed materials are self-­ correcting, eliminating the need to consult an adult. • Sensory orientation. Montessori considered all the senses to be important, and she designed her materials to stimulate their use as part of the learning process. One popular Montessori work task is the cylinder block. Several different types are used, some varying only in the depth of the cylinder, others only in the diameter. The more difficult ones require the child to differentiate both depth and diameter. Children take the cylinders out and place them carefully on the table and then replace them in the appropriate holes. Another common material found in Montessori programs is the buttoning frame. There are several variations of these wooden frames, all of which have two half-sheets of fabric attached. Some have buttons, and others have tying materials that children use to connect and disconnect the two pieces of fabric. This task develops fine motor skills and prepares children to dress themselves. Figure 3.2 below provides examples of a cylinder block and a buttoning frame. Classroom Organization Montessori carefully organized the materials and equipment in her classroom so that children could easily and effectively use them (Lillard, 1996). One characteristic of this organization was the child-sized equipment she used. Montessori designed tables and chairs with young children’s bodies in mind. She also constructed storage shelves, sinks, drinking fountains, toilets, and other equipment at the appropriate height for young children. Montessori wanted children to independently and easily use the available equipment. Precise organization is another characteristic of the work spaces in a Montessori program. The early childhood professional stores each activity in a specific place and carefully organizes the materials for easy use by children. Early Childhood Programs Essay

The adult organizes many of the work tasks on trays so that children can take them to their own work space, use the materials, and return them to their proper storage spot. The washing-up tray, for example, is stored on a shelf in the home living center and typically contains a child-sized pitcher, bowl, washcloth, soap, soap dish, and apron, all neatly organized for children’s use. Figure 3.2 (a) Montessori Cylinder Blocks (b) Button Frame (a) (b) 66 Chapter 3 A third characteristic of organization is the use of individual work spaces for each child. Typically, a small rug or mat defines the personal space children need for their work tasks. During work time, children bring out their rug, place it on the floor or at a table, and then select the task they want to use. These mats encourage children to focus their energies on the work before them rather than being distracted by the activities of others. Montessori programs are loosely organized into centers that differ somewhat from other early childhood settings. Lillard (1972) identifies four categories of materials that are used in each of these centers: • Daily living materials. This equipment allows children to engage in activities associated with their own physical well-being or provides opportunities for them to manage the indoor environment. Materials for washing up and a child-sized dustpan and broom are examples of these options. • Sensorial materials. Montessori saw the development of all the senses as an important way to help young children learn. These materials help enhance sensory awareness while assisting in intellectual development. One example is M ­ ontessori’s sound cylinders, which the adult uses to help children discriminate between sounds of different objects placed in wooden cylinders. • Academic materials. Children use this equipment to learn language arts, mathematics, geography, and science. There is a natural progression from sensorial to academic materials. An example of an academic material is the collection of metal shapes that children use for tracing. These shapes help develop the physical skills children need for later writing tasks. • Cultural and artistic materials. This equipment helps prepare children for later artistic expression. For example, Montessori professionals believe that children need practice in walking a line on the floor as they prepare for future music and dance expression. As children develop their sense of balance and gain better control over their hands and feet, they develop the skills needed for rhythm and dance experiences. Role of the Early Childhood Professional The formal training of Montessori professionals is extensive. Prospective candidates must thoroughly study child development, understand the educational values of all the materials used in the program, become sensitive to the appropriate times to present work tasks to children, and gain experience in interacting with children. Early Childhood Programs Essay

Most U.S. college advisors suggest future educators complete an early childhood degree first and then earn an additional Montessori certificate. This provides new professionals with the greatest number of teaching options. Programs accredited by the Montessori Accreditation Council for Teacher Education or approved by the Association Montessori International provide quality training, practicum and internship experiences. Adults in a Montessori classroom operate on three basic principles (Mon­tessori, 1965): • A carefully prepared environment. The first and most important task of a Montessori professional is to thoroughly prepare the indoor environment. When children can work with materials that meet their developmental needs, they spend many productive hours engaged in work tasks that enhance learning and development. • An attitude of humility. Montessori professionals recognize that children’s inner needs are very difficult to understand, and adult attempts to assist in meeting these needs are often misguided. Therefore, truly effective early childhood Early Childhood Program Models 67 professionals must approach their roles humbly, while constantly evaluating their own motives and the needs of children. • Respect for the child’s individuality. A thorough understanding of child development and individual differences is essential for the Montessori professional. Knowing and respecting these differences within and between children helps the adult focus on the positive characteristics each child possesses. Montessori’s ideas, materials, and teaching strategies have a relatively small but loyal group of supporters both in the United States and around the world. The strong emphasis on highly structured work tasks, however, is generally in conflict with the play orientation of most American early childhood programs. In America, Montessori’s approach is most popular with families who seek a more structured learning environment in which to stimulate child development. Children Served Montessori’s original work with children focused on ages 4–7. Early Childhood Programs Essay

As interest in her methods and materials grew, she began to expand the ages served. Although the focal point for this model remains on preschool and kindergarten children, Montessori programs can be found that serve the needs of infant/toddlers, elementary school children, and students in their middle and high school years. A review of American Montessori Society (2014) programs in California, for example, found the following early childhood options: • Infant/toddler programs. Several programs provide Montessori education for children beginning at 18 months, with a few admitting infants from 2 months of age. • Programs for ages 3–6. Nearly all the Montessori schools in California included this age range as an option for families. • Programs for ages 6–9. Montessori educators believe that children of this age have very similar needs, interests, and abilities. Montessori programs often group these children together in t … Early Childhood Programs Essay