Introduction “Asteroid Eros Yields Secrets From Time Before Earth Was Born” “Discovery Of Armored Viruses May Inspire New Designs For Nanotechnology” “Mechanism Found Behind Drug-Free Acceptance Of Transplants” “Combination Of Radiation And Hormone Suppression Therapy Shown To Effectively Treat EarlyStage Prostate Cancer” “UF Technique Detects Tiny, Potentially Harmful Airborne Particles” “Research Measures Migraine’s Impact On “Typical” Sufferer, Links Migraine And Depression” “Stress Could Increase Risk Of Heart Disease In Women” “Out Of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment To Gain Insight Into Modern Synchronized Oscillators” The above are headlines from science stories posted in a single day (Sep. 25, 2000) on just one science news Web site, ScienceDaily.com. These are not unlike dozens of other stories we see every week in the media reporting the latest research findings and how they may impact our lives. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

According to a 1999 survey by the National Science Foundation (NSF), Americans have great confidence in science, but little understanding of the process underlying scientific research. “Only 21 percent were able to explain what it means to study something scientifically…and only a third knew how an experiment was conducted ” (Entomological Society of America, “Newest Survey Shows Most Americans Have Confidence in Science, But Lack Understanding” [ESA Newsletter, August 200, vol. 23, no. 80, online]). The purpose of this tutorial is to demystify the process of science. Once you are familiar with the basic elements of a good research study you will be able to read news stories like the ones listed above with a more critical eye. You will understand that the headlines reported by the media and the research conclusions often are not the same, and you will know why. In addition to this introduction section, this tutorial is organized into five main sections. “Science Surrounds Us” discusses the relevance of science in our everyday lives. “What Is Science?” defines and outlines the basic principles of science. “The Scientific Method” describes the general steps of most research studies and explains how experiments are carried out. “Theories in Science” defines one of the most misunderstood words in science: theory, and contrasts theories with hypothesis, facts, and natural laws. Science is only one of many ways of looking at the world. In the final section, “The Limits of Science,” the methods and purposes of science are compared to those of philosophy, religion and the Arts. This section also defines “pseudoscience” and explains how it differs from true science.

The tutorial is interactive throughout and designed to be engaging. In the words of Albert Einstein, “The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science” (“The World as I See It,” in Living Philosophies [New York: Simon & Schuster, 1931], 7). Objectives After completing this tutorial, you should be able to: • • • • describe the steps that generally characterize the scientific method explain the importance and utility of the scientific method list the qualities that characterize a valid scientific hypothesis formulate a testable hypothesis to explain a given set of observations • • • • • explain the differences between a scientific hypothesis and a theory generally describe the characteristics and the functions of theories in science apply the scientific method to a hypothetical situation and formulate your own conclusion critically evaluate the research design of scientific experiments described in news articles or journals give an example of the impact of science on modern daily life Return to top of page Recommended Materials Hatton, John, and Paul B. Plouffe. 1997. Science and Its Ways of Knowing. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. (Strongly recommended.) Carey, Stephen S. 1998. A Beginner’s Guide to the Scientific Method. 2nd ed. Belmont: Wadsworth. 1998. (This is helpful for those wishing to go into more detail into the logic and methods of research.) To view a short video clip in the Science Surrounds Us section of this tutorial, you will need to use the the latest version of the RealPlayer media player, which is a free download available from Real.com. (Scroll down to the link for the free player which is found on the left side of your screen.) Recommended Web Resources Scientific Method: Rutherford, F. James, and Andrew Ahlgren. “The Nature of Science,” in “Science for All Americans On-line.” American Association for the Advancement of Science: Project 2061. http://www.project2061.org/tools/sfaaol/chap1.htm (Accessed 14 Nov. 2000). Wolfs, Frank. “Introduction to the Scientific Method” Home Page of Frank Wolfs. http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html (Accessed 14 Nov. 2000). (Frank Wolfs is a physics professor at the University of Rochester.) Science News: The following Internet sites provide reports of recent discoveries in the sciences. Many of these articles may be appropriate for use in writing assignments or class conferences. They are also provided to show how basic scientific investigations can relate directly to practical everyday issues. Enjoy your explorations! Science Daily Magazine. Contains many articles on science and technology updated daily. Includes archive and search engine. SciCentral. Gateway to a wealth of science resources. Includes news, links, databases and much more. New Scientist. Includes articles from a variety of science fields with an extensive archive and search engine. It is difficult to pick up a newspaper or turn on a television without being inundated with news from the “mysterious” realm of science. From the latest, fastest microchip to a promising new treatment for cancer, research findings are presented in the media on a daily basis, and some of these may have profound implications for our daily lives, our nutrition, health, safety, workplace, recreation, and family. Many nonscientists have to interpret and use scientific information at work, and make business decisions based on technical reports or research data. Science and technology touch almost every aspect of our lives, from the cars that get us to work to the foods we eat. But what is science? How many of us understand the basic principles that underlie this sea of information we are swimming in? What Is Science? Science is a way of thinking much more than a body of knowledge. —Carl Sagan, Broca’s Brain [Science is] the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. —American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language These two complementary definitions eloquently summarize both the nature of science and the activities in which scientists engage. Science is a systematic method of learning about the universe that relies on logic and revolves around the notion of cause and effect. Scientists begin with the important presumption that the universe operates according to certain laws that can, at least in principle, be understood. Scientists attempt to describe these natural laws and ultimately may use them to make useful predictions and to devise technological applications that make our lives easier. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

The great success of science stems from its reliance on observations to document phenomena and its use of logical reasoning to explain what is observed and why. One of the key elements in this process is the understanding that new observations might cast a different light upon previous descriptions (theories) of how nature works. Thus, scientific descriptions of natural phenomena are continually evolving, with each revision bringing a clearer and broader understanding of the principles at work. From determining the function of a mysterious protein inside a human fat cell to charting the stars that make up the galaxies, scientists engage in a diverse array of activities to answer a wide range of questions. However, the same basic principles of science underlie each type of investigation, and can be applied to almost any question one could pose about the natural world. Although there are certainly exceptions, most types of scientific research can be distilled down to a simple series of steps. These steps are often referred to as “the scientific method.” The Scientific Method Tutorial Steps in the Scientific Method The Scientific Method Flowchart The Scientific Method in Detail Step 1: Observations Step 2: The Hypothesis Step 3: Testing the Hypothesis Step 4: Data Analysis Step 5: Stating Conclusions The Scientific Method Steps in the Scientific Method There is a great deal of variation in the specific techniques scientists use explore the natural world. However, the following steps characterize the majority of scientific investigations: Step 1: Make observations Step 2: Propose a hypothesis to explain observations Step 3: Test the hypothesis with further observations or experiments Step 4: Analyze data Step 5: State conclusions about hypothesis based on data analysis Each of these steps is explained briefly below, and in more detail later in this section. Step 1: Make observations A scientific inquiry typically starts with observations. Often, simple observations will trigger a question in the researcher’s mind. Example: A biologist frequently sees monarch caterpillars feeding on milkweed plants, but rarely sees them feeding on other types of plants. She wonders if it is because the caterpillars prefer milkweed over other food choices. Step 2: Propose a hypothesis The researcher develops a hypothesis (singular) or hypotheses (plural) to explain these observations. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of a phenomenon or observation(s) that can be supported or falsified by further observations or experimentation. Example: The researcher hypothesizes that monarch caterpillars prefer to feed on milkweed compared to other common plants. (Notice how the hypothesis is a statement, not a question as in step 1.) Step 3: Test the hypothesis The researcher makes further observations and/or may design an experiment to test the hypothesis. An experiment is a controlled situation created by a researcher to test the validity of a hypothesis. Whether further observations or an experiment is used to test the hypothesis will depend on the nature of the question and the practicality of manipulating the factors involved. Example: The researcher sets up an experiment in the lab in which a number of monarch caterpillars are given a choice between milkweed and a number of other common plants to feed on. Step 4: Analyze data The researcher summarizes and analyzes the information, or data, generated by these further observations or experiments. Example: In her experiment, milkweed was chosen by caterpillars 9 times out of 10 over all other plant selections. Step 5: State conclusions The researcher interprets the results of experiments or observations and forms conclusions about the meaning of these results. These conclusions are generally expressed as probability statements about their hypothesis. Example: She concludes that when given a choice, 90 percent of monarch caterpillars prefer to feed on milkweed over other common plants. Often, the results of one scientific study will raise questions that may be addressed in subsequent research. For example, the above study might lead the researcher to wonder why monarchs seem to prefer to feed on milkweed, and she may plan additional experiments to explore this question. For example, perhaps the milkweed has higher nutritional value than other available plants. Return to top of page The Scientific Method Flowchart The steps in the scientific method are presented visually in the following flow chart. The question raised or the results obtained at each step directly determine how the next step will proceed. Following the flow of the arrows, pass the cursor over each blue box. An explanation and example of each step will appear. As you read the example given at each step, see if you can predict what the next step will be. Activity: Apply the Scientific Method to Everyday Life Use the steps of the scientific method described above to solve a problem in real life. Suppose you come home one evening and flick the light switch only to find that the light doesn’t turn on. What is your hypothesis? How will you test that hypothesis? Based on the result of this test, what are your conclusions? Follow your instructor’s directions for submitting your response. The above flowchart illustrates the logical sequence of conclusions and decisions in a typical scientific study. There are some important points to note about this process: 1. The steps are clearly linked. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

The steps in this process are clearly linked. The hypothesis, formed as a potential explanation for the initial observations, becomes the focus of the study. The hypothesis will determine what further observations are needed or what type of experiment should be done to test its validity. The conclusions of the experiment or further observations will either be in agreement with or will contradict the hypothesis. If the results are in agreement with the hypothesis, this does not prove that the hypothesis is true! In scientific terms, it “lends support” to the hypothesis, which will be tested again and again under a variety of circumstances before researchers accept it as a fairly reliable description of reality. 2. The same steps are not followed in all types of research. The steps described above present a generalized method followed in a many scientific investigations. These steps are not carved in stone. The question the researcher wishes to answer will influence the steps in the method and how they will be carried out. For example, astronomers do not perform many experiments as defined here. They tend to rely on observations to test theories. Biologists and chemists have the ability to change conditions in a test tube and then observe whether the outcome supports or invalidates their starting hypothesis, while astronomers are not able to change the path of Jupiter around the Sun and observe the outcome! 3. Collected observations may lead to the development of theories. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

When a large number of observations and/or experimental results have been compiled, and all are consistent with a generalized description of how some element of nature operates, this description is called a theory. Theories are much broader than hypotheses and are supported by a wide range of evidence. Theories are important scientific tools. They provide a context for interpretation of new observations and also suggest experiments to test their own validity. Theories are discussed in more detail in another section. Recommended Reading • • “A Method of Enquiry” by George Kneller, in Science and Its Ways of Knowing. “The So-called Scientific Method” by Henry H. Bauer, in Science and Its Ways of Knowing. Return to top of page The Scientific Method in Detail In the sections that follow, each step in the scientific method is described in more detail. Step 1: Observations Observations in Science An observation is some thing, event, or phenomenon that is noticed or observed. Observations are listed as the first step in the scientific method because they often provide a starting point, a source of questions a researcher may ask. For example, the observation that leaves change color in the fall may lead a researcher to ask why this is so, and to propose a hypothesis to explain this phenomena. In fact, observations also will provide the key to answering the research question. In science, observations form the foundation of all hypotheses, experiments, and theories. In an experiment, the researcher carefully plans what observations will be made and how they will be recorded. To be accepted, scientific conclusions and theories must be supported by all available observations. If new observations are made which seem to contradict an established theory, that theory will be re-examined and may be revised to explain the new facts. Observations are the nuts and bolts of science that researchers use to piece together a better understanding of nature. Observations in science are made in a way that can be precisely communicated to (and verified by) other researchers. In many types of studies (especially in chemistry, physics, and biology), quantitative observations are used. A quantitative observation is one that is expressed and recorded as a quantity, using some standard system of measurement. Quantities such as size, volume, weight, time, distance, or a host of others may be measured in scientific studies. Some observations that researchers need to make may be difficult or impossible to quantify. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

Take the example of color. Not all individuals perceive color in exactly the same way. Even apart from limiting conditions such as colorblindness, the way two people see and describe the color of a particular flower, for example, will not be the same. Color, as perceived by the human eye, is an example of a qualitative observation. Qualitative observations note qualities associated with subjects or samples that are not readily measured. Other examples of qualitative observations might be descriptions of mating behaviors, human facial expressions, or “yes/no” type of data, where some factor is present or absent. Though the qualities of an object may be more difficult to describe or measure than any quantities associated with it, every attempt is made to minimize the effects of the subjective perceptions of the researcher in the process. Some types of studies, such as those in the social and behavioral sciences (which deal with highly variable human subjects), may rely heavily on qualitative observations. Limits of Observations Because all observations rely to some degree on the senses (eyes, ears, or steady hand) of the researcher, complete objectivity is impossible. Our human perceptions are limited by the physical abilities of our sense organs and are interpreted according to our understanding of how the world works, which can be influenced by culture, experience, or education. Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content

According to science education specialist, George F. Kneller, “Surprising as it may seem, there is no fact that is not colored by our preconceptions” (“A Method of Enquiry,” from Science and Its Ways of Knowing [Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1997], 15). Observations made by a scientist are also limited by the sensitivity of whatever equipment he is using. Research findings will be limited at times by the available technology. For example, Italian physicist and philosopher Galileo Galilei (1564– 1642) was reportedly the first person to observe the heavens with a telescope. Imagine how it must have felt to him to see the heavens through this amazing new instrument! It opened a window to the stars and planets and allowed new observations undreamed of before. In the centuries since Galileo, increasingly more powerful telescopes have been devised that dwarf the power of that first device.

In the past decade, we have marveled at images from deep space, courtesy of the Hubble Space Telescope, a large telescope that orbits Earth. Because of its view from outside the distorting effects of the atmosphere, the Hubble can look 50 times farther into space than the best earth-bound telescopes, and resolve details a tenth of the size (Seeds, Michael A., Horizons: Exploring the Universe, 5th ed. [Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998], 86-87). Construction is underway on a new radio telescope that scientists say will be able to detect electromagnetic waves from the very edges of the universe! This joint U.S.Mexican project may allow us to ask questions about the origins of the universe and the beginnings of time that we could never have hoped to answer before.  Discussion: The Cows that Produced Low Fat Content