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Lack of Adequate Human Services to Address the Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape

Abstract

This thesis explores the human service needs for children conceived of rape. Until now, children conceived of rape face marginalization and stigmatization due to association with paternity. This leads to psychological and socioeconomic challenges hindering effective integration in the community. Beyond the lack of governmental and nongovernmental human services to enhance the wellbeing of this population, there is a lack of research on this topic. Using a mixed study design through interviews with children conceived of rape, mothers, and the general population in Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), this thesis begins to fill this gap, focusing on the breadth of the problem and the possible solutions. This study recognizes the lack of coordinated human services focused on either helping the child and the mother directly or promoting community awareness on the need to support this population. Many of the children conceived of rape are from low socioeconomic class and would benefit from community resources. There is a need to establish policy or programs focused on helping children conceived of rape to be integrated into the community, especially in countries with high risks of civil and political wars. There is a need for further research to explore public education’s effectiveness in reducing stigma and marginalization of children conceived of rape.

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

 

Chapter I

Introduction

Children conceived from rape comprise a significant social group that experiences several challenges as they age.  Among these challenges is stigma, which results in many psychological issues. During combat, women are raped, tortured, and abducted, bearing children in harsh and deplorable conditions (Neenan, 2018). Sexual violence is a significant problem globally in both developed and developing nations. In our lifetime, close to a billion women are affected by rape. Different human services have focused on working with survivors of rape and sexual assault to provide legal and psychological services needed to enhance resilience. Sexual violence takes various forms, including intimate partners and strangers and acquaintances (WHO, 2014, November 28). Sexual harassment in workplaces and schools is a challenge in communities around the world. During armed conflicts such as those in Rwanda in 1994, incidences of sexual slavery and systematic rape are common and result in forced impregnation. Another global challenge is sexual abuse propagated to the physically and mentally disabled (WHO, 2014, November 28). Other forms of rape result in children born to victims or through forced marriage and wife inheritance. The prevalence of rape globally is high, and in some instances, there are unreported cases (Neenan, 2018).Healthcare and medico-legal services like emergency contraception, information on safe abortion, and sexually transmitted infections are critical for survivors. These services can help promote the wellbeing of the survivors and prevent long-term challenges. Many people, especially in Africa’s developing countries, have adverse experiences of rape due to long-term war incidences. Many women and young girls in Rwanda were forcefully impregnated during the Rwandan civil war from 1990 to 1994 (Denov et al., 2020). Rape is a painful and unthinkable subject for rape survivors, their children, and their families. According to Buss (2009), rape in wartime was a planned and targeted policy in Rwanda and Yugoslavia. In the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, rape was used to subdue, punish, and take revenge on communities and groups.

Problem Statement

When rape victims become pregnant, do they accept to bear the child, or do they lack the services and goodwill for termination? How well do communities understand the social challenges that will be experienced by children conceived of rape? Are mothers prepared to effectively communicate to the children on their conception without causing a significant identity crisis? Can communities access appropriate services that are focused on avoiding stigma to children conceived of rape? Lack of human services for children conceived from rape is a challenge for their psychological wellbeing. These children need support services to help integrate them into the community like other children in their peer groups. In the community, mothers can be blamed for rape and childbearing incidences, affecting their ability to love and accept the child. Most wish the children are dead, and others opt to give the child away (Salo, 2010). The children experience social stigmatization that includes hateful labels like children of shame, resulting in increased psychological challenges, including depression, Post Truamatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and anxiety disorders. The lack of an established and good mother-child relationship may lead to neglect and abuse. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Unlike other sexual violence victims, such as rape survivors (including childhood sexual abuse), there is little or no information on the unique vulnerabilities experienced by children conceived of rape. There are few or no human service efforts focused on addressing the unique challenges of children conceived from rape. Whereas response to rape cases should be focused on safely terminating pregnancies, there is a need for services focused on the socio-economic, social, and psychological challenges experienced by children conceived from rape. During incidences of war, access to safe termination of pregnancies is a significant challenge. Other unique challenges include cultural and religious beliefs opposing the termination of pregnancies (Salzman, 1998). The conservative stance that abortion is tantamount to murder poses critical challenges (Koleva et al., 2012). Hence, there is a need for responsible policy and protections that help children conceived of rape.

According to a research report for the UN Global Study, there is a significant knowledge gap and less public policy focused on the needs of children born from conflict-related sexual violence (Neenan, 2018). A growing body of research explains the risk surrounding children conceived of rape, including homelessness, abandonment, stigmatization, statelessness, emotional abuse, physical abuse, poverty, food insecurity, and recruitment to armed criminal groups. The children are ostracized from the community and cannot access support services like other sexual violence victims. The unique challenge is the child’s association with their father perceived as an enemy and foreigner contesting their sense of belonging and identity, increasing physical and emotional abuse risks. In different countries, the children are given various hate labels such as ”paraquitos” or ”children of green people” in Colombia, ”children of shame” in Kosovo, ”children of hate” in Rwanda, ”Kony’s children” in Uganda, and ”children of the enemy” in Timor-Leste (Neenan, 2018). Children conceived of rape being left behind while addressing the challenges of children affected by sexual violence represent critical gaps that need to be closed by human service programs. Positive social service interventions are lacking that would comprehensively address the needs of girls and women who become pregnant from sexual violence and children born therein. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Conclusion

Chapter I provided an introduction to the problem and the need for this study.  The Literature Review in Chapter II addresses the growing body of research that explores the challenges experienced by children conceived of rape.

 

 

Chapter II

Literature Review

Introduction

There is a growing body of literature exploring children conceived of rape. The literature explains the marginalization of children conceived of rape, primarily due to war in different countries. The keywords used to locate articles from Google Scholar and Jstor databases are children conceived of rape. When searching articles by ”human services for children conceived of rape,” it yielded no focused articles indicating a research gap. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Rape Induced Pregnancy and Challenges to Children of Rape

Carpenter (2000) explains that rape-induced pregnancy is a worse crime against women than the rape itself. The author explains that the ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia resulted in forced impregnation, but the subject of children was absent in the debate on atrocities against women. Children exacerbate the grievousness of rape, causing more psychological damage to the women, and increasing suicidal thoughts, growing association with their fathers (Carpenter, 2000). The failure to connect these children’s plight to rape victims’ fate increased incidences of abandoning the children (Carpenter, 2000). Children conceived of rape are marginalized in analyzing the victims of human rights abuses in the former Yugoslavia. Carpenter (2000) explains that children conceived of rape are identified more with the perpetrators than the victims of genocide and sexual violence, increasing stigmatization. Carpenter (2000) explains that children conceived of rape in Yugoslavia were referred to as Serbian babies meant to prevent births within the community groups. Although the children are innocent, they are defined as weapons of war, precluding them from the victimized group and, hence, enemies within genocide victims.

Rouhani et al. (2016) explain that since the beginning of the armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in 1996, increased incidences of sexual violence with related pregnancies created a significant social problem. The authors highlight changes in the complexities of maternal-child relationships (Rouhani et al., 2016). Rouhani et al. (2016) explain that sexual violence-related pregnancies result in unique parenting challenges based on stigmatization. While some mothers have a positive attitude towards their children, family, and community stigma increases psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD (Rouhani et al. 2016). The authors argue there is a need to improve maternal-child relationships to enhance children’s experiences. Challenges such as maternal anxiety and depression lead to a decrease in parental care to the children. Rouhani et al. (2016) explain that parenting quality increases with a spouse’s presence. Community acceptance to the mother and the child is essential and enhances an adaptive parenting attitude (Rouhani et al., 2016). Improvement in maternal mental health will improve the long-term wellbeing of the child and the mothers.

Van Ee and Blokland (2019) explain there are limited or unavailability of resources to support the mothers with children conceived from rape. The authors call for unique building blocks of interventions to enhance the child and the mother’s wellbeing. Van Ee, and Blokland. (2019) explains that appropriate intervention for this primary and secondary victims’ wellbeing must include addressing stigma, reducing trauma, and building a secure attachment. The wellbeing of mothers must be considered a priority in all efforts to support children conceived from rape since a poor mother-child relationship results in delayed children’s development (Van Ee and Blokland, 2019). The child is a reminder of the sexual violence and hence conflicts with motherly love. Differentiation of the child from the experiences is a difficult situation for the mother that requires clinical interventions that are not often available (Van Ee and Blokland, 2019).  The authors also explain the prevalence of children conceived of rape as unknown but increases from war incidences.

Beck et al. (2018) explain that 5% of rape victims become pregnant, and 32% choose to raise the child. Rape victims are highly vulnerable and experience multiple pregnancies (Beck et al., 2018). Until the perpetrators are criminally convicted in the US, the family court asks victims to parent the child with their rapists. Although terminating the parental rights of the rapists are allowed in some states, the prevalence of psychological and health impacts remains significant (Beck et al., 2018). Rape-related pregnancies result in the victims having to make complicated decisions, including termination or continuing the pregnancy. Other difficult decisions include placing the child for adoption or parenting the child (Beck et al., 2018). Beck et al. (2018) highlight that 32% of women in the US who became pregnant from rape in the 1990s decided to parent the child. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Liebling, Slegh, and Ruratotoye (2012) explore the challenge of delivering children conceived of rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Liebling et al. (2012) explain that children conceived of rape experience psychological, social, and health challenges. Abortion is illegal in the Congo, and response services after rape are incredibly complicated (Liebling et al., 2012). Cultural views of rape as marriage with a rapist eliminate care and affection to the rape survivors. Both the Congolese and foreigner’s militia operated with impunity since the 1990s, raping women and girls regularly (Liebling et al., 2012).  In Congo rural areas, the children of rape experience social exclusion. Liebling et al. (2012) explain that children conceived of rape experience critical challenges regarding their identities. The children are often considered dangerous to the community. The implication to society is that these children can come back to society for revenge as rebels due to a lack of support, including their mothers (Liebling et al., 2012). In DRC, cultural conflicts are inevitable, and hence there are no significant concerns on the outcome of their reactions (Liebling et al., 2012). The children are considered a child of the enemy from childbirth due to cultural views of receiving an identity from the father (Liebling et al., 2012). Children also suffer from a lack of affection from their mothers, who never consented to their birth (Liebling et al., 2012).

Mukangendo (2007) explains that children conceived of rape are among the most affected groups decades after the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. During this period, between 2,000 and 5,000 children were born in Rwanda through forced impregnation. The author explains that children conceived of rape face significant stigma and are referred to as ”children of hate” or children of a lousy memoir by their mothers and the community. Growing children question their mothers about their identity and, in the process, struggles for acceptance by mothers and the community. The mothers’ marginalization by their families and the community increases their bitterness toward children (Mukangendo, 2007). In a patriarchal society like Rwanda, children receive their fathers’ identity, and hence, children conceived of rape always remind mothers of the violence they have endured. For instance, some victims were impregnated by soldiers who killed their parents, husband, or other children, and this crisis increases hatred toward the children. The children conceived of rape also suffer from the instabilities experienced by their mother due to the violence, which caused them trauma (Mukangendo, 2007). Divisions ensure families between those who reject the child and those who choose to accept their child and raise them without any ill feelings.

Mukangendo (2007) also explains that children conceived of rape were never constructed as a vulnerable group. Although the government is committed to vulnerable children’s needs and provides appropriate services and protections, the children conceived of rape continue to be marginalized (Mukangendo, 2007). Watson (2007) explains that Darfur’s conflict includes evidence on the current prevalence of sexual violence during times of war and the marginalization of the children conceived of rape in the international discourse. According to Denov and Lakor (2017), children of war in Uganda within the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) report significant post-war marginalization, and they consider wartime as better than peacetime. Issues of belonging and identity, stigma, rejection, violence, and socioeconomic marginalization are among the significant challenges these children face (Denov and Lakor, (2017). Kahn and Denov (2019) explore the psychological difficulties experienced by children conceived of rape. Kahn and Denov (2019) explain from the focus group in Rwanda that the children suffer from the trauma of stigmatization and marginalization and carry the burden of mother’s trauma.

The literature on human services to this vulnerable social group is lacking. Most of the current research studies recommend the need for services focused on addressing these children’s unique needs. Denov and Lakor (2017) recommend establishing multiple support systems to enhance children’s rights and protection. Kahn and Denov (2019) explain the need for opportunities to promote self-acceptance and acceptance by the families and the community to enhance society’s full participation. Denov et al. (2020) explain that children conceived of rape face a distinct set of challenges that are not formally addressed. Denov et al. (2020) recommend policies, services, and programs focused on these young people’s needs. Neenan (2018) explains that no child should be invisible, and children conceived of rape in Uganda and Colombia should be accorded essential services. Neenan (2018) describes a significant milestone reached in the global consciousness and policymaking in children of rape’s wellbeing. The UK-led principles for global action focused on prevention and addressing stigma on children conceived of rape define them as victim-survivor, promoting essential services to address their challenges. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Statement of the Overall Purpose

This study explores the human service needs for children conceived of rape to address the various forms of challenges that exist within marginalization and stigmatization in the local community and the international discourse. This thesis will explore the current state of children conceived from rape regarding their psychological, social, and economic wellbeing based on the presence and absence of support systems needed for resilience. A qualitative research design will be based on different case studies, including Rwanda and DRC, on human services available for children conceived as the result of rape. An inductive analysis of the data will explain the human services necessary for this vulnerable group to close the existing gap.

Research Questions

The study’s primary question is, are there adequate human services available for children conceived from rape to support their participation in the community? What are the most appropriate social services that address the unique needs of children conceived from rape?

Hypothesis

There are inadequate or no human services available to address the psychological, social, legal, and economic issues of children conceived from rape to enhance their active participation in the community. Human services efforts focused on the community, including awareness on the challenges of children conceived from a rape, and the need for support is essential.

Conclusion

Research indicates that children conceived of rape have unique challenges due to the stigmatization and marginalization in their community.  The Literature Review in Chapter II focused on exploring the available research evidence on the plight of children conceived of rape.  In Chapter III, research methodologies, data collection analysis, and case studies will be reviewed.

 

Chapter III

Methodology

Mixed Methods Research Design and Significance

A mixed research design combines at least one qualitative and one quantitative research component (Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). In this study, the mixed research design includes components of quantitative and qualitative data obtained through online interviews, surveys, and review of secondary materials. The nature of the research question(s) highlighted the need for a mixed research design to meet facts and large sample size objectives (quantitative) and breadth and details (qualitative). Campbell Taylor and McGlade (2016) provide the model for the selection of research design in human services as follows; (1) Experimental or quasi-experimental studies are appropriate for exploring the effectiveness of human service interventions; (2) Qualitative research studies are appropriate to gather details on community perceptions and experiences on their needs and services; (3) Quantitative design is appropriate for determination of prevalence and correlation of services and behaviors. The research objectives are multifactorial, utilizing the mixed research design, integrated benefits of qualitative and quantitative research. Data collection included quantitative data on the number or proportion of children affected in the sample population and human service prevalence to address their concerns. Data collection included gathering qualitative data on the community’s perceptions and characteristics of children’s unique needs conceived of rape and the strength and limitations of the services. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Data Collection

Qualitative and quantitative case studies completed included Rwanda and DRC. First, the psychological, social, and economic well-being of the children conceived from rape for each group was explored. Second, the presence and absence of support systems needed for resilience were included. In-depth qualitative online interviews with 20 participants from Rwanda for at least 30 minutes was used to explore the perspectives and experiences of children conceived from rape. The participants in the interviews were ten children conceived from rape and their mothers. Participants’ details were obtained through the assistance of photojournalists who have compiled stories of Rwanda genocide survivors. Qualitative data was also obtained through a secondary analysis of qualitative data from two different news articles. The approach was to investigate new questions from the data to account for any transformations. The first article was from The New York Times by Jonathan Torgovnik on March 30, 2019. The second article is from The Washington Post of a story by Danielle Paquette, published on June 11, 2017. The permission to use the articles was obtained, and participants consent.

Quantitative data was collected through surveys from 120 participants from Rwanda and DRC. Seventy-five individuals from each country responded to the survey, including the rape victims, children conceived of rape, and members of the community (N=150). Thirty survey reports were rejected for analysis for incomplete responses to the survey questions (Rwanda; n=5 and DRC; n=25). Survey participants were adults aged 20-55 with experience on challenges experienced by children conceived of rape. Most of the participants who participated in the survey were located through social therapy groups and other community groups. Survey questions were distributed through emails and text messages. The participants’ distribution was as follows; Mothers (n₁=40), children conceived of rape (n₂= 60), general population (n=20). Secondary analysis of quantitative data from existing primary studies was also included to support the survey responses.

 

Data Analysis

A thematic narrative approach was used for the analysis of qualitative data.  Narrative research is important for stories shared by children conceived of rape and their mothers. Thematic analysis method explains what is said over how it is said. Event centered narrative was used to highlight the past stigma and marginalization events of the mothers and their children. Another approach used is the experience-centered narrative to explain real and imagined events across different circumstances in the development of Community-Based Sociotherapy groups. The analysis focuses on the kind of experiences children conceived of rape and their mothers construct in their conversations. Quantitative data is analyzed through graphical data analysis.

Conclusion

This chapter provided an overview of the research methodologies used for this study. This chapter details the instrumental multiple case study methodology. The research, conducted using a mixed-methods research design, collecting data by interviews and analysis of secondary data. Data analysis included a thematic narrative approach for qualitative data and graphical analysis for quantitative data. These findings will be addressed in the next chapter.

 

 

Chapter IV

 Results

The literature review shows that children conceived from rape experience marginalization and stigmatization from families and the community. The results also show a lack of human services to help both the mother and the children conceived from rape (Torgovnik, 2019, April 8). Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Quantitative Results

Mothers who participated in the survey were aged 36-45, no college education, and 80% had no formal employment. 60% of the women remarried and bore other children, and 40% have no other children. 50% of children conceived from rape (n=30) have no college education or formal employment. 30% of the children conceived from rape (n=18) are currently in college but have inadequate funds to successfully advance their careers. 20% of the children conceived from rape (n=12) have benefited from community resources, including scholarships and job opportunities. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper.

Figure 1:

Experiences of Mothers of Children Conceived from Rape (n=40; DRC)

 

Note: The experiences of mothers of children conceived of rape are shown for the highest level of stigma by family and community, stigma only from community and no stigma.

	Figure 1 provides a pie chart/graph analysis on stigma experiences of the mother of a child conceived of rape. The pie chart shows the proportion of mothers experiencing stigma from a particular group. The graph measures the proportion of mothers facing stigma from; o   Family and the community-82% o   Only from community/no stigma from family-13% o   No stigma- 5%

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2

Experiences of Children Conceived of Rape (n=60; Rwanda)

Note: The experiences of children conceived of rape based are shown based on the most significant source of stigma.

	Figure 2 shows that children experience the highest level of stigma, mainly from both family and community (75%). 25% of the children also reported experiencing the highest form of stigma only from the community. None of the children (0%) reported not having any form of stigma from either the community or the family.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Children are more likely to experience high stigma from the community only compared to the mothers (25% vs. 13%), while mothers experience higher stigma from family and community compared to children (82% vs. 75%). Mothers are more likely not to experience any form of stigma compared to the children conceived from rape (5% vs. 0%). A significant group of people thus identify mothers as victims, but children conceived from rape are associated with paternal identity. However, these results are based on study outcomes from unevenly distributed sample size in Rwanda and DRC. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

Figure 3:

Experiences of Mothers and Children Conceived from Rape from the Perspective of Other Groups (n=20; 10 Rwanda and 10 DRC)

Note: The experiences of children conceived of rape and their mothers are shown from the observations by other community groups.

Figure 3 shows that the majority of people in the community (75%) have observed children conceived of rape and their mothers experience high stigma. 15% consider that these populations benefit from supportive groups, while 10% identify their challenges as common to those of other members of the community.

 

 

 

 

 

 

This survey result shows that while there are efforts for the creation of supportive groups to assist children conceived of rape and their mothers, these services are inadequate.

The Number of Children Conceived from Rape

Rwanda

Torgovnik (2019, April 8) in the New York Times provide an account of children conceived from rape during the Rwanda genocide. More than 10,000 children were conceived from rape in Rwanda (Weitsman, 2008). In Rwanda, the children born 25 years ago are called ”children of killers” throughout their development (Torgovnik, 2019, April 8). The children live with trauma throughout their lives.

DRC

In 2009, more than 7,500 cases of rape were reported, including those that resulted in pregnancy. Rouhani et al. (2015) explain that 17% of rape victims in DRC become pregnant. Terminating a child conceived from rape is a challenge since abortion is illegal in DRC (OCHA, 2009, December 22). Among the children conceived from rape in DRC since 2003, 10% are orphans, and 11% are HIV positive (Mukwege, Mohamed-Ahmed, & Fitchett, 2010).

Support Systems Needed for Resilience

Rwanda

There are limited support systems for children conceived from rape in Rwanda, increasing the threat of stigma (Torgovnik, 2019, April 8). Mothers have received guidance on the need to disclose to the children the circumstances of their birth. Support interventions available are for mothers to improve their mental health (Denov & Piolanti, 2019). Lack of a formal government policy to help children conceived from rape decreases the viability of support interventions (Sector, 2017, June 11). The Community Based Sociotherapy Rwanda (CBS), created in 2016, provides an effective process for the integration of children conceived from rape in the community. Particularly CBS has an agenda to enhance healing and reconciliation by capitalizing on the achievements of Gacaca (post-genocide jurisdiction process) (Community Based Physiotherapy, 2018, January). CBS focuses on creating platforms for dialogue and follow-up to personal healing, reconciliation, and social justice. The interventions by the organization are significant for social cohesion, interpersonal reconciliation, and the psychological wellbeing among people in the country (Community Based Physiotherapy, 2018, January). The program has already benefited 2,100 people in four provinces. Challenges of Children Conceived from Rape Thesis Paper

DRC

Many children conceived from rape have no access to human services, and rejection from family and society leave them in the street. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) provide counseling and prenatal care to support the wellbeing of mothers. Some children benefit from financial support to meet the cost of schooling. Human services to minimize stigma and promote the children’s psychological wellbeing are unavailable (Koya, 2018). Expected support includes acceptance from society and not being stigmatized by the health workers. Mothers receive support on appropriate communication with children of their heritage.

Qualitative Results/ Narrative

From the online interviews and researchers Jonathan Torgovnik and Danielle Paquetter’s previous findings, the children of rape report high stigmatization and limited resources for integration in the community. After having disclosed to the children the circumstances of their birth, the children conceived of rape narrate the difficulties experienced when growing up. The average age of the participants is 26 years. Discrimination and harassment in the judgemental society are a threat to their wellbeing, being called children of killers. According to Faustin, who is 26 years old, ”it was painful learning my father was a rapist and killer and especially being stigmatized for it.” The children conceived from rape live in high poverty.

Conclusion

This chapter provided the results of the surveys and secondary data reviews. The results indicated that children conceived of rape experience high stigma from the family and community. There are only limited support systems available for children conceived from rape and their mothers to enhance psychological wellbeing and promote social cohesion.

Conclusions drawn from the survey results and findings related to the research questions identified in this study will be presented in the next chapter.

 

 

Chapter V

 Discussions, Conclusion, and Recommendations

This study result indicates that children conceived from rape are in difficult situations that cause long-term negative effects.  As the children become adults, they are exposed to the same discrimination and harassment they endured while growing up (Torgovnik, 2019, April 8). This study highlights the lack of improvement in the community perception of children conceived from rape. The lack of human services to support these groups leads to an increased prevalence of lifetime psychological disorders and health effects. The children born of rape are marginalized and hence not integrated into the community (Sector, 2017, June 11). The needs of children conceived from rape are unique and specialized interventions needed to address them are unavailable.

In DRC, the lack of human services to support the mothers increases challenges experienced by children conceived from rape (OCHA, 2009, December 22). Children conceived of rape in DRC lack support services and suffered rejection in the family, ending up in the street. Mothers of children conceived from rape do not have access to clinical interventions and public education programs to help accept the child and disclose the circumstances of their conception. Counselling and prenatal care to mothers are important for enhancing the wellbeing of the children (OCHA, 2009, December 22).

In Rwanda, the lack of formal policy to support the children conceived from rape make it hard for the children to cope with life.  The CBS created in Rwanda in 2016 has an important vision to enhance social cohesion and promote the psychological wellbeing of the population. However, it has only benefited 2,100 (general population) in 4 provinces, but there are more than 10,000 children conceived from rape in the country. The CBS has no task force focused on addressing the unique needs of children conceived from rape. Interventions such as public education, clinical interventions, and supportive legal and economic services are essential to help children conceived from rape (Van Ee, & Blokland, 2019).

The research instruments used in this study promoted the high accuracy and credibility of these research findings. The use of quantitative surveys focused on children conceived from rape increased the accuracy of the results and eliminated research biases. The interviews and secondary data reviews provide relevant data for the improvement of human service systems. However, the study includes several limitations in the scope and design. The result only provides a descriptive analysis of results from two developing countries, limiting application in different cultures.

Recommendations for Future Research

The study recommends further studies to explore the effectiveness of the human services interventions within different cultural settings. The effectiveness of public education, clinical interventions, and supportive legal and economic services in reducing stigma and marginalization of children conceived from rape.

Conclusion

The goal of this study was to explore the human service needs for children conceived of rape. The study shows that children conceived from rape experience unique challenges that can be addressed through public education, clinical interventions, and supportive legal and economic services. The study highlights major limitations in the application of these interventions to enhance social cohesion and promote the psychological wellbeing of children conceived of rape. There is a need for formal policy and programs to coordinate efforts to support the child and the mother.

References

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Buss, D. E. (2009). Rethinking ‘ rape as a weapon of war.’ Feminist Legal Studies, 17(2), 145-163. 

Carpenter, R. C. (2000). Surfacing children: Limitations of genocidal rape discourse. Human Rights Quarterly, 22, 428 – 477.  

Community Based Physiotherapy. (2018, January). Community-based Sociotherapy Rwanda. Peace Insight. 

Denov, M., & Piolanti, A. (2019). Mothers of children born of genocidal rape in Rwanda: Implications for mental health, wellbeing, and psycho-social support interventions. Health Care for Women International, 40(7-9), 813-828.

Denov, M., & Lakor, A. A. (2017). When war is better than peace: The post-conflict realities of children born of wartime rape in northern Uganda. Child Abuse & Neglect, 65, 255-265. 

Denov, M., Woolner, L., Bahati, J. P., Nsuki, P., & Shyaka, O. (2017). The intergenerational legacy of genocidal rape: The realities and perspectives of children born of the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(17-18), 3286-3307. 

Kahn, S., & Denov, M. (2019). “We are children like others”: Pathways to mental health and healing for children born of genocidal rape in Rwanda. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56(3), 510-528. 

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Koya, M. (2018). 5.1-O5Children who were born of rape in the armed conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo and social inequalities: Considerations, social, economic, and health challenges. European Journal of Public Health, 28(suppl_1). 

Liebling, H., Slegh, H., & Ruratotoye, B. (2012). Women and girls bearing children through rape in Goma, Eastern Congo: Stigma, health, and justice responses. Itupale Online Journal of African Studies, 4, 18-44.

Mukangendo, M. C. (2007). Caring for children born of rape in Rwanda. Born of war: Protecting children of sexual violence survivors in conflict zones, 40-52.

Mukwege, D. M., Mohamed, A. O., & Fitchett, J. R. (2010). Rape as a strategy of war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. International Health, 2(3), 163-164. 

OCHA. (2009, December 22). DR Congo: Children born of rape face dismal future – Democratic Republic of the Congo. ReliefWeb.

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