Child Learning and Development Essay

4 Understanding How a Child Develops and Learns Centenary of the Montessori Movement In this chapter you will • Describe key perspectives on learning and development. • List characteristics of children at different ages and stages of development and variations on these typical patterns. • Explain the key characteristics of the developmentally appropriate classroom. It is time for another school year to begin, and you sit down to study the class list for your second-grade students. Gabriel’s name is familiar to you. His firstgrade teacher shared with you that you should be prepared for a very bright and busy yet excitable child. Gabriel was tested last year and qualified for the school’s gifted and talented program, yet often is aggressive with other children. Of the remaining 22 names on your class list, two are receiving special education ­services, three are on medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and four were receiving intervention services for low reading scores last year. Interestingly enough, this is considered a typical classroom. As their teacher, you wonder what you can do to prepare for the diverse developmental and learning needs of all the children in your class. Specifically, you wonder, how will you meet both the academic enrichment and social intervention needs of Gabriel? After taking a deep breath, you reassure yourself that you are not alone. Over the school year you will regularly meet with school district specialists and families of all the children and consult with your teaching peers. Just as you did last year, you will partner with these knowledgeable and caring adults to ­collaboratively support all the second-grade children’s growth and development. You smile as you ­recognize your own professional growth from the early days of your teaching 5 years ago, when you felt you had to “do it all alone.” Your growing understanding of how your knowledge of child development and learning is supported with partnerships in the school and with families and community resources is reassuring. You take another deep breath of excitement in preparation for getting this next school year started! A s difficult and challenging as the preceding scenario appears, this classroom experience is manageable. Early childhood educators across the country face the complex dynamics of classrooms where children vary greatly in abilities, and they must find ­creative ways to help these students learn and grow. One essential ingredient for success in this challenging process is an understanding of the overall patterns of child development and learning. This chapter begins with a discussion of several important theoretical perspectives on this topic. Child Learning and Development Essay

After learning about these different views on how children M04_HENN3718_06_SE_C04.indd 87 9/21/16 12:11 AM 88 Chapter 4 Technology Explorations and Activities . . . Internet Resources on Child Development In this chapter, you will learn about important child development theories and the similarities and differences in development between children. Take a moment to choose one of the topics in the chapter that is of particular interest to you. Do an Internet search on that topic to gather more information. An example of one place to start is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) website area devoted to “topics.” Updated links to major areas of interest for early childhood educators are available for anyone to review. Be sure to think carefully about the sites you review. Some will have more credibility than others, and you will want to use sources that can provide the best, most accurate information. Starting with a well-regarded professional organization’s website helps your initial evaluation of resources. Research, Reflect, and Respond 1. First, critique the Internet sites that were available on the topic you chose. How would you assess the quality of the sites you reviewed? What criteria did you use to determine the quality of the site? 2. What did you learn about the topic that you chose? Share your findings with classmates. 3. Based on this exercise, how helpful do you think the Internet will be to you as a future early childhood professional in learning more about child development? Why do you think this? learn and develop, information about normal child development and variations from these typical patterns will be presented. The Technology Explorations and Activities feature above gives you the opportunity to access and evaluate information on child development found on the Internet. The purpose of learning about children and their development is to create a solid foundation from which you can communicate and interact appropriately, create positive learning environments, and plan activities and lessons that meet children’s needs and interests. As you build your knowledge of children, you will be better equipped to engage in these developmentally appropriate practices. The final section of this chapter addresses this topic in greater depth. Key Perspectives on Learning and Development Many attempts have been made over the years to explain child development and learning. It should come as no surprise that there are no easy answers to these complex issues. However, armed with the insights from a variety of theorists, early educators can have a much better understanding of developmental processes in childhood. Several key theorists stand out as providing perspectives that are essential for those who work in the field of early care and education. The classic works of Bowlby, Maslow, Gardner, Montessori, Vygotsky, Erikson, Piaget, and Bronfenbrenner provide a wealth of insights into child development and learning. More recently, the research and writing of neurobiologists Shonkoff and Phillips and the research synthesis of Galinsky add further insights into child development and learning. John Bowlby (1907–1990) Early in his work in child guidance, British researcher John Bowlby became concerned about the ability of children raised in institutions to form lasting relationships with o ­ thers. Understanding How a Child Develops and Learns 89 He developed an explanation for these behaviors that is referred to as an ethological theory (Thomas, 1985) because he studied relationship building within an evolutionary context. Child Learning and Development Essay

Bowlby proposed that children who grew up in orphanages were unable to love because they had not had the opportunity to form a solid attachment to a mother-figure early in life (Bowlby, 1969). This attachment is an emotional bond that occurs between two people and is essential to healthy relationships. Bowlby’s work led him to suggest that this bonding process begins at birth and is well under way by about 6 months of age. During this time, infants typically attach themselves to their primary caregiver. From about 6 to 18 months, a young child separated from an attachment figure (often the mother) will be quite upset and engage in frequent crying. Fear of strangers is another common behavior during this period. Damon (1983) identifies four stages in the attachment process: • Preattachment (Phase I) lasts from birth to approximately 12 weeks of age. During this time, children make little distinction among people in their vicinity. They turn toward them, follow them with their eyes, and are generally more content when others are around. • Attachment-in-the-making (Phase II) is the period from about 12 weeks to 6 months of age. At this point, children continue to be interested in people around them. They do not express concern when strangers are introduced during this period. The main change at this phase is that infants become more enthusiastic in their responses to their primary caregivers. They begin to clearly prefer that key person who is providing for their basic needs. • Clear-cut attachment (Phase III) begins around 6 months of age and continues to about 2 years. Now, the young child clearly discriminates between people who provide primary care and others. As children begin to explore the world around them, they use the attached person as a secure base from which they move out to interact with people and things. The bonds between primary caregivers and the child are strong, and it is hard for the child to be separated from these attachment figures. Strangers produce more anxiety and concern for children during this phase as well. • Goal-corrected partnership (Phase IV) finds the 2-year-old beginning to develop relationships with attached persons that are more complex and that start to recognize the goals and plans of the attached adults. Up to this point, the child has focused on having needs met, and the attachment bond is a rather one-sided relationship. Slowly, these partnerships mature, and the increased opportunities for reciprocal interactions benefit both the child and the adult. Although infants typically develop a primary attachment to one caregiver, other attachment bonds can also be significant. Fathers, siblings, relatives, and other important caregivers can be attachment figures to the young child. Mary Ainsworth, a key ­American researcher to study attachment, describes these as secondary attachments (­ Ainsworth, 1973) and discusses the importance of these bonds in her work. Bowlby (1969) also describes the more positive aspects of this attachment relationship. As the infant/toddler becomes more confident in his caregiver bonding, he becomes more able to use the attached person as a base from which to explore. If, for example, a mother and her 1-year-old son go to the park for the afternoon, the strongly attached child will typically remain close for a short time and then move off to briefly explore his new surroundings. This sense of confidence and competence allows young children to learn more about the world around them and continue to grow stronger both emotionally and intellectually. Clearly, the attachment relationship has important implications for early childhood programs. Child Learning and Development Essay

Caregivers working with infants and toddlers need to be aware of the M04_HENN3718_06_SE_C04.indd 89 9/21/16 12:11 AM 90 Chapter 4 importance of attachment and be prepared to deal with the separation problems that many children will face when attached caregivers leave. Another issue is the effect of high turnover rates in child-care centers on secondary attachments. Raikes (1993) found that children who spent at least 9 months with a high-quality caregiver were more likely to develop a secure relationship, and that attachment security was enhanced.    Watch this video to learn more about how infants and their primary caregivers engage in social exchanges (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apzXGEbZht0). Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) Maslow’s ideas about human development are often referred to as humanistic theory ­(Schunk, 2008) because of the emphasis on the development of self. He proposed that people have needs that must be met to become and stay healthy. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs is summarized in Figure 4.1. The most basic needs are at the bottom and strongly impact each person’s ability to meet higher-level needs. The first level of needs is often referred to as deficiency needs (Maslow, 1968) because their absence causes physical and/or emotional illness. The top two levels of needs are called growth needs and are the individual’s attempts at becoming a more satisfied and healthy person. These needs can be described as follows: • Physiological needs. The need for food, clothing, and water are considered the most basic. Life itself is not possible without having these needs met. Even when Figure 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Belongingness and Affection Self-Respect Physiological Needs Safety and Security Growth Needs Deficiency Needs Understanding How a Child Develops and Learns • • • • 91 they are not met for short periods of time, the consequences can be significant. For example, coming to an early learning program without breakfast is going to make it difficult for the young child to learn. Safety and security needs. All human beings also need to live in a safe and nonthreatening environment. Not having these needs met can cause serious physical or emotional health problems. Belongingness and affection. The need to be part of a group and feel loved is another important aspect of healthy living. When these needs are met, the individual is more able to reach out to support and encourage others. Self-respect. At a slightly higher level than belongingness and affection, every person needs to be valued by others and to have high self-esteem. Quality schooling experiences, when combined with the meeting of lower-level needs, helps strengthen the young child’s developing sense of self. Self-actualization. Maslow suggests that the highest point of every person’s development occurs when he or she engages in self-actualization. For brief periods, individuals at this level perform at their maximum potential. Maslow’s theory, in addition to providing insights about the importance of human needs, provides hope for those who work with children from difficult circumstances. He suggests that when previously unmet basic needs are provided for, the child can move ahead and develop more normally. For example, the child who lives in a physically abusive home is under incredible stress and is likely to experience many difficulties in early childhood settings. Yet, if this child is removed from the abusive environment or if the abuse is eliminated, healthy growth is again possible. This encouraging perspective has support in the research literature (Skeels, 1966) and should help you be more optimistic toward children who are being raised in even the most difficult of circumstances. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs makes it clear that early learning is much more complicated than many people believe. Rather than focusing solely on academics, you must also be concerned with children’s other needs and must do your best to make sure these needs are consistently being met. Although it is not possible for any one person to meet all the needs of each child, it is necessary to work to meet as many as possible. This must begin with an awareness of any childhood needs that are not being met. Child Learning and Development Essay

Howard Gardner (1943– ) As a faculty member at Harvard University, Howard Gardner has promoted a new view of intelligence in his many writings. Rather than seeing intelligence as a single, general capacity that each of us possesses, he suggests that people have at least eight distinct types of intelligence. This theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993) has prompted many to rethink the ways in which learning takes place and the techniques used to measure intelligence. Gardner identifies eight intelligences that people possess to greater or lesser degrees (Gardner, 1983, 1999). In addition, he is currently researching the possibility of a ninth intelligence that is tentatively being called existential intelligence. Following are the eight identified intelligences: • Linguistic intelligence is seen in people who speak or write creatively and with relative ease. • Logical-mathematical intelligence can be seen in people who reason effectively and engage in high-level mathematical and scientific inquiry. 92 Chapter 4 • Spatial intelligence allows people like engineers and sculptors to form refined mental models of the spatial world around them. • Musical intelligence is found in people who are especially talented in singing or playing a musical instrument. • Bodily kinesthetic intelligence helps people solve problems and fashion products using their body or body parts. Athletes and dancers have high bodily kinesthetic intelligence. Two additional intelligences are referred to as the personal intelligences: • Interpersonal intelligence, the first personal intelligence, is the ability to understand and interact with other people at a high level. • Intrapersonal intelligence, the second personal intelligence, is the ability to have a deep understanding of self. • Naturalistic intelligence was added more recently to the original seven categories (Gardner, 1999). The person strong in this intelligence has special abilities in recognizing differences in the natural world. Gardner’s notion of multiple intelligences reminds us that children come to the early childhood setting with many different talents and skills that we as educators need to recognize and respect. Too often, schools prize linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences and overlook the rest (Gardner, 1999). When we are sensitive to the other intelligences, children see themselves as more successful and competent. Recognizing a variety of intelligences also means that early childhood professionals must plan their curriculum differently. Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori developed what is referred to as a maturational theory of child development. Through her work with young children in Italy, she developed an intriguing theory and many practical strategies that have significantly influenced early care and education. Based on her readings and observations of children, Montessori believed that children pass through numerous sensitive periods during their progress to adulthood (Montessori, 1967). She viewed these periods as genetically programmed blocks of time when young children are especially eager and able to master certain tasks. For example, Montessori suggested that there is a sensitive period for walking when the infant/toddler spends considerable time and effort in learning to walk. As most families can attest, it becomes almost an obsession for children as they struggle to master this important task. Another important idea that Montessori promoted was the concept of the unity of the mental and physical (Lillard, 1996). Child Learning and Development Essay

Until Montessori, Western educational thought had been influenced by Descartes, who viewed people as divided into two parts: the intellectual and the physical. Her readings and work with children led Montessori to the opposite conclusion. That is, full development of the intellect is not possible without physical activity. Learning through doing is a cornerstone of Montessori’s educational approach. Montessori also believed that during the first 3 years of life children have ­absorbent minds (Montessori, 1967). Because children’s minds are not fully formed during these years, she reasoned that they must learn in ways different from adults. Montessori believed that children unconsciously absorb information from the environment around them and, like a sponge, simply soak up information into their developing minds. This information also forms their minds in preparation for later, more advanced thought. Understanding How a Child Develops and Learns 93 Montessori also believed that children pass through stages in their growth and development. She described five specific periods of growth: • Birth to age 3. During this period, children unconsciously absorb information from the world around them. • Age 3 to 6. Gradually, children bring the knowledge of the unconscious to a conscious level. • Age 6 to 9. Children build the academic and artistic skills necessary for success in life. • Age 9 to 12. A knowledge of the universe gradually opens up to children during this period. • Age 12 to 18. Children explore areas of special interest in more depth (Lillard, 1972). Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) Although he lived a short life, Vygotsky’s theory of development has had a significant impact in his homeland of Russia and more recently in the United States. Often referred to as a sociocultural theorist (Schunk, 2008), Vygotsky’s theory states that development is primarily influenced by the social and cultural events of each individual’s life. Interactions with other children and ad … Child Learning and Development Essay