Racial Equity in the Education System

 

For professionals in education to advocate for equity in education, they must first recognize that systemic racism still exists in the education system since its inception[1]. The voice of the people of color in the country was intentionally omitted from decision-making, which has tremendously shaped how the current system functions[2]. During its 384-year history, the black people have only managed to access public education for approximately 17% of the time learning institutions have existed in America[3].  Rendering to the 2017 clashes in Charlottesville, Virginia, an individual can realize that racism in the country is still a contentious issue and the community’s efforts to uproot this evil and redeem the minority groups in the country from the grips of this social evil is not complete[4].

The Nature of Educational Inequality

Individuals living in the US tend to forget that up to the late 1960s, the minority groups in the country were educated in purely segregated learning institutions that received low funding than those that served the needs of the white student in the country. The end of legal segregation and individuals’ efforts to establish equity in the educational sector started in 1970 and has made a significant difference for learner achievement [5]. For instance, the period 1970-1980 saw a reduced gap between minority and white students’ test scores, especially for elementary school learners[6]. Nevertheless, what individuals should note is that the educational experiences of minority groups in the country have continued to be significantly unequal[7]. For instance, many black students have a higher likelihood of attending learning institutions that have a higher population of minority groups[8]. Many of these schools are located within cities and receive significantly reduced funds than other suburban neighborhoods.

According to recent studies in New Jersey and New York, learning institutions dominated by students of color have significantly reduced resources ranging from qualified teachers to curriculum offerings than learning institutions dominated by white students[9].  Also, a study conducted by Taylor and Piche (1991) shows that inequitable distribution of resources and especially finances in learning institutions have tremendous impacts on minority students and economically disadvantaged learners[10]. One should note that the majority of these students come from the southern states in the country where poverty levels are significantly high[11].  Also, states with a high financial capacity experience widest disparity in educational funding as black people tend to live in poor neighborhoods which poorly perform in educational expenditures[12].

Even with schools found in larger cities, learning institutions with a large population of learners from minority groups receive reduced educational materials than others[13]. Tracking systems adopted in the country exacerbate the given inequalities by discriminating against poor students within learning institutions[14]. The given policies expose poor learners to a myriad of issues ranging from poor quality academic text books to less experienced educators[15]. Another notable issue is that learning institutions in poor neighborhoods do not offer math and science courses needed for higher education[16].

Discourse on Racial Bias in Education

Racism in America affects learners beginning from the initial stages of schooling and continues to higher education.   According to studies by CNN, black preschool learners have a higher likelihood of being suspended from school than their white colleagues[17]. Studies also show that over 1.6 million learners in the US attend learning institutions in the company of law enforcement officers as opposed to therapists[18]. The majority of these students are from the minority groups in the country. Besides, these students are likely to attend learning institutions that do not offer courses like algebra and chemist[19].  For instance, according to recent studies, black boys as young as ten years are viewed as less innocent than their white counterparts.

Further, studies also suggests that learners from the minority groups in the country have increased chances of constantly being watched by law enforcement officers at school[20]. These police officers lack the necessary skills to differentiate between criminal and normal behavior found in the learning institutions[21]. Therefore, learners end up being these unfairly charged.

Individuals need to realize that it is not only what happens at learning institutions that interferes with individuals’ chances for success[22]. What one should note is that there is also a substantial presence of ethnically segregated learning institutions that make it harder for learners from minority groups in the country to interact with their peers from other ethnic groups in the country and overcome their racial bias[23]. Although areas like Boston and New York are considered affluent, these areas still have learning institutions that need to undergo desegregation[24]. Apart from the segregation in these schools, black learners have to master the coursework that has no mention of their heritage or history[25]. Further, educators willing to educate black learners about their history cannot do so since state exams want learners in the country to fixate themselves on the history and life histories of the white founding fathers in the country[26].

Advancing Racial Equity in The Education System

All individuals in America have a right to quality education. Although individuals can argue that the government has tremendously achieved in the fight against racism in the country, inequalities in education still exist[27]. A fair and inclusive system that makes it possible for all individuals to pursue education is one of the most powerful levers to make the community more equitable[28]. For the last 50 years, education has substantially expanded, but the hope that this would bring about a fairer society has only been partially achieved[29]. Although individuals can argue that more learners from the minority groups in the country pursue higher education, many of them are still being left behind[30].

Establishing Equity in Education

Equity in education is very essential and involves fairness which encompasses ensuring that personal and social circumstances do not interfere with an individual’s ability to achieve their full potential.  Equity in education also involves inclusion which ensures a basic minimum standard of education for all individuals[31].  Both fairness and inclusion are closely related through which individuals can tackle school failure. Individuals can also overcome the impacts of social deprivation, which often causes school failure[32]. Individuals can nevertheless overcome these issues by strengthening early childhood education, advocating for equitable funding, advocating for less policing and surveillance of black learners, and strengthening teachers’ professional development to deal with multiculturalism in the country[33].

Advocating for Equitable Funding

Money is a fundamental resource in education. According to studies, effectively funding learning institutions improves education outcomes while poorly funding schools reduces performance among learners[34]. Studies show that the US’s education funding system remains inequitable, disproportionately affecting learners from minority groups in the country[35]. According to studies, more than 35% of publicly owned learning institutions’ revenue comes from property taxes[36]. This property tax tends to stabilize funding in high-end areas at the expense of poorer areas in the country which are compelled to rely on more unstable states revenues[37]. This can explain why schools dominated by blacks in the United States annually receive approximately $23 billion less than their white-dominated colleagues[38].

Learners from poor neighborhoods attend learning institutions that are poorly funded by the government and can expose individuals to inhumane conditions[39].  It is, therefore, the role of professionals in the education sector to ensure that states equally treat schools in the country through which all learners in the country get equal services to reduce the rate of inequality in the country[40]. They should also ask for increased investments in education. This can ensure that essential projects in schools and the overall spending in schools are all equitable where there is a large number of learners from minority communities in the country[41].

Advocating for Less Policing and Surveillance of Black Learners

There has been a rapid increase in gun violence in learning institutions in the US in the recent past. For instance, rendering to the 2018 school shooting in Parkland, Florida, legislators allocated a huge amount of money for security upgrades and law enforcement officers in learning institutions in the country[42]. Although individuals can argue that gun violence in learning institutions must be eradicated, increased policing and surveillance cannot necessarily eradicate the problem in learning institutions[43]. Students from minority groups in the country feel less safe in the presence of law enforcement officers as they have a higher likelihood of being more policed than protected. When black learners are treated like criminals, they can lose an interest in going to school, leading to increased school dropouts among these individuals[44]. Therefore, a reduced number of police officers in the learning institutions can be essential in instilling a sense of security in the learning institutions[45]. “Educators have for the longest time understood that trust is a vital component to establishing a conducive environment for learners to learn as they tend to learn best when they feel respected, have positive attitudes towards their educators, and feel good about themselves[46].” Reducing students’ surveillance can be essential in removing barriers between learners and their schools and can reduce disunity within the school’s community.

Strengthening Teachers’ Professional Development

As previously seen, educators in most learning institutions dominated by black learners in the US are less qualified and tend to be less experienced. As a result, black learners get sub-standard knowledge from these educators than their white colleagues who attend learning institutions dominated by experienced educators[47]. Ensuring that educators in all learning institutions in the country are qualified can be essential in achieving equity in the education sector[48]. There is a dire need for the relevant authorities to consider paying educators a significant amount of money for the learners’ greater good[49].   Teachers need to develop strong identities as professionals. It is hard for educators to feel like professionals when they do not feel competent[50]. Therefore, the government should offer additional training to all educators, which can help them employ well-recognized teaching methodologies and clarity while tutoring[51].  Through this, learners can find it easier to understand their teachers[52]. Bridging the existing gap between educators in white-dominated schools and black-dominated schools can ensure that all learners in the country get similar knowledge, which can also be essential in bridging the country’s existing wage gap[53]. Also, educators should encourage their students the importance of embracing diversity in school[54]. When individuals understand that their differences make them unique, they can learn from each other and establish a sense of peace and harmony in the community[55].

Importance of Equity in Education

Although equity in education is morally right, studies also show that striving towards educational equity is a winning strategy for all learners. Equity plays an essential role in improving communities in the country[56]. Learning institutions in the country are intended to prepare learners for higher education and participation in civic life[57]. Learning institutions are not only involved in teaching democracy to learners but are also actively involved in embodying it[58]. When learners attend highly diverse schools, they can understand that all individuals are equal despite their racial affiliations and embrace each other’s differences, thus making the community a better place to live in[59].

Equity in education also plays an essential role in challenging the imbalances of power and privilege[60]. Through equity in education, all individuals, whether white or black, have equal opportunities and can address the existing injustices between races[61]. For instance, during medieval times, only whites and especially males were allowed to pursue courses dealing with justice matters[62].  As a result, many criminal cases have been unfairly decided as white juries cannot fully understand what black people go through in their neighborhoods[63]. Therefore, equity in education can ensure that all individuals are given equal opportunities through which such injustices in the community can be eradicated and thus peace and harmony in the community[64].

There is a strong correlation between high-quality education and improved standards of living. Provision of quality education among all individuals living in the United States can ensure that people’s living standards improve[65]. When individuals are offered equal opportunities in education, they can pursue courses of choice and secure employment in their areas of interest[66]. Securing employment ensures that individuals have a steady source of income through which they can pay their bills[67]. Also, a steady income source can ensure that the spending levels of individuals in the country are high[68]. The country can collect more taxes, which can be essential in improving the country’s economy[69]. Individuals with a steady income source can purchase good houses, thus reducing homelessness in the country and improving the general quality of life as poor neighborhoods can be eradicated in the country.

Education plays an essential role in developing problem-solving skills in the community. Through education, individuals can create innovations that can be essential in making the world a better place[70]. For instance, individuals can come up with drugs that can cure HIV/AIDS and cancer[71]. Through equity in education, individuals from different social backgrounds can join hands and share ideas essential in coming up with other solutions[72]. People from different social backgrounds have different experiences, which, if brought together, can make it easier for individuals to deal with potential danger in the community[73]. Also, equity in education can be essential in giving back to the community[74]. Educated individuals can always engage in charitable work through which they can help those in need[75]. For instance, helping orphans and the sick in society is essential in making all individuals feel loved, leading to peace and prosperity in the community.

Conclusively, inequalities in the education sector in the US have been in existence since time immemorial. Rendering to American history, an individual can realize that slaves in the country and the people of color were not allowed to pursue education. Learning institutions in poor neighborhoods suffer from reduced funds and less experienced educators, making it hard for such schools to offer mathematics and chemistry courses. There is a dire need for the American government to develop ways of dealing with inequalities in the country. When individuals, despite race, are offered the same opportunities, society can find it easier to deal with other social inequalities in the community. For instance, the country can find it easier to bridge the existing gaps in wages and employment opportunities. As a result, the rate of poverty among minority groups in the country can reduce crimes due to increased living standards. Giving financial security to individuals can make it possible for them to afford quality healthcare services and thus improve the country’s quality of life.

References

Alhumam, I., 2015. Reflections on Racism in American Schools. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(11), pp.160-161.

Baker, D.J., 2019. Pathways to racial equity in higher education: Modeling the antecedents of state affirmative action bans. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), pp.1861-1895.

Bitensky, S.H., 1991. Theoretical foundations for a right to education under the US Constitution: a beginning to the end of the national education crisis. Nw. UL Rev., 86, p.550.

Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

Felix, E.R. and Trinidad, A., 2020. The decentralization of race: Tracing the dilution of racial equity in educational policy. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 33(4), pp.465-490.

Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Nichols, A.H. and Di Leone, B.A.L., 2013. Anything but race: Avoiding racial discourse to avoid hurting you or me. Psychology, 4(03), p.335.

Hutmacher, W., Cochrane, D. and Bottani, N., 2001. In pursuit of equity in education. Using international indicators to compare.

Jayakumar, U.M., Garces, L.M. and Park, J.J., 2018. Reclaiming diversity: Advancing the next generation of diversity research toward racial equity. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 11-79). Springer, Cham.

Kaur, B., 2012. Equity and social justice in teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), pp.485-492.

Klein, S.S., Richardson, B., Grayson, D.A., Fox, L.H., Kramarae, C., Pollard, D.S. and Dwyer, C.A. eds., 2014. Handbook for achieving gender equity through education. Routledge.

Kupchik, A. and Ward, G., 2014. Race, poverty, and exclusionary school security: An empirical analysis of US elementary, middle, and high schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(4), pp.332-354.

Lange, A., Vogt, C. and Ziegler, A., 2007. On the importance of equity in international climate policy: An empirical analysis. Energy Economics, 29(3), pp.545-562.

Schmidt, W. and McKnight, C., 2015. Inequality for all: The challenge of unequal opportunity in American schools. Teachers College Press.

Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

Tisdell, E.J., 2007. In the new millennium: The role of spirituality and the cultural imagination in dealing with diversity and equity in the higher education classroom. Teachers College Record, 109(3), pp.531-560.

Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

Williams, D.G. and Evans-Winters, V., 2005. The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race discourse in teacher education. The Urban Review, 37(3), pp.201-219.

Wilson, W.J., 2006. The geography of opportunity: Race and housing choice in metropolitan America. Brookings Institution Press.

[1] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[2] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[3] Baker, D.J., 2019. Pathways to racial equity in higher education: Modeling the antecedents of state affirmative action bans. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), pp.1861-1895.

 

[4] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

[5] Felix, E.R. and Trinidad, A., 2020. The decentralization of race: Tracing the dilution of racial equity in educational policy. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 33(4), pp.465-490.

 

[6] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

[7] Alhumam, I., 2015. Reflections on Racism in American Schools. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(11), pp.160-161.

 

[8] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[9] Williams, D.G. and Evans-Winters, V., 2005. The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race discourse in teacher education. The Urban Review, 37(3), pp.201-219.

 

[10] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[11] Williams, D.G. and Evans-Winters, V., 2005. The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race discourse in teacher education. The Urban Review, 37(3), pp.201-219.

 

[12] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[13] Williams, D.G. and Evans-Winters, V., 2005. The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race discourse in teacher education. The Urban Review, 37(3), pp.201-219.

 

[14] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

 

[15] Baker, D.J., 2019. Pathways to racial equity in higher education: Modeling the antecedents of state affirmative action bans. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), pp.1861-1895.

 

[16] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[17] Lange, A., Vogt, C. and Ziegler, A., 2007. On the importance of equity in international climate policy: An empirical analysis. Energy Economics, 29(3), pp.545-562.

 

[18] Williams, D.G. and Evans-Winters, V., 2005. The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race discourse in teacher education. The Urban Review, 37(3), pp.201-219.

 

[19] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[20] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[21] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[22] Lange, A., Vogt, C. and Ziegler, A., 2007. On the importance of equity in international climate policy: An empirical analysis. Energy Economics, 29(3), pp.545-562.

 

[23] Alhumam, I., 2015. Reflections on Racism in American Schools. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(11), pp.160-161.

 

 

[24] Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Nichols, A.H. and Di Leone, B.A.L., 2013. Anything but race: Avoiding racial discourse to avoid hurting you or me. Psychology, 4(03), p.335.

 

[25] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[26] Baker, D.J., 2019. Pathways to racial equity in higher education: Modeling the antecedents of state affirmative action bans. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), pp.1861-1895.

 

[27] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[28] Jayakumar, U.M., Garces, L.M. and Park, J.J., 2018. Reclaiming diversity: Advancing the next generation of diversity research toward racial equity. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 11-79). Springer, Cham.

 

 

[29] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[30] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

[31] Klein, S.S., Richardson, B., Grayson, D.A., Fox, L.H., Kramarae, C., Pollard, D.S. and Dwyer, C.A. eds., 2014. Handbook for achieving gender equity through education. Routledge.

 

[32] Klein, S.S., Richardson, B., Grayson, D.A., Fox, L.H., Kramarae, C., Pollard, D.S. and Dwyer, C.A. eds., 2014. Handbook for achieving gender equity through education. Routledge.

 

[33] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

[34] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[35] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

 

[36] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[37] Schmidt, W.H., Burroughs, N.A., Zoido, P. and Houang, R.T., 2015. The role of schooling in perpetuating educational inequality: An international perspective. Educational Researcher, 44(7), pp.371-386.

 

[38] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[39] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[40] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[41] Unterhalter, E., 2009. What is equity in education? Reflections from the capability approach. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(5), pp.415-424.

 

[42] Felix, E.R. and Trinidad, A., 2020. The decentralization of race: Tracing the dilution of racial equity in educational policy. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 33(4), pp.465-490.

 

[43] Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

 

[44] Felix, E.R. and Trinidad, A., 2020. The decentralization of race: Tracing the dilution of racial equity in educational policy. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 33(4), pp.465-490.

 

[45] Kupchik, A. and Ward, G., 2014. Race, poverty, and exclusionary school security: An empirical analysis of US elementary, middle, and high schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(4), pp.332-354.

 

[46] Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

 

[47] Bitensky, S.H., 1991. Theoretical foundations for a right to education under the US Constitution: a beginning to the end of the national education crisis. Nw. UL Rev., 86, p.550.

 

[48] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[49] Ward, C., 2020. Theories of justice underpinning equity in education for refugee and asylum-seeking youth in the US: considering Rawls, Sandel, and Sen. Ethics and Education, 15(3), pp.315-335.

 

[50] Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Nichols, A.H. and Di Leone, B.A.L., 2013. Anything but race: Avoiding racial discourse to avoid hurting you or me. Psychology, 4(03), p.335.

 

[51] Wilson, W.J., 2006. The geography of opportunity: Race and housing choice in metropolitan America. Brookings Institution Press.

 

 

[52] Jayakumar, U.M., Garces, L.M. and Park, J.J., 2018. Reclaiming diversity: Advancing the next generation of diversity research toward racial equity. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 11-79). Springer, Cham.

 

[53] Tisdell, E.J., 2007. In the new millennium: The role of spirituality and the cultural imagination in dealing with diversity and equity in the higher education classroom. Teachers College Record, 109(3), pp.531-560.

 

[54] Schmidt, W. and McKnight, C., 2015. Inequality for all: The challenge of unequal opportunity in American schools. Teachers College Press.

 

[55] Jayakumar, U.M., Garces, L.M. and Park, J.J., 2018. Reclaiming diversity: Advancing the next generation of diversity research toward racial equity. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 11-79). Springer, Cham.

 

[56] Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

 

[57] Hutmacher, W., Cochrane, D. and Bottani, N., 2001. In pursuit of equity in education. Using international indicators to compare.

 

[58] Baker, D.J., 2019. Pathways to racial equity in higher education: Modeling the antecedents of state affirmative action bans. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), pp.1861-1895.

 

[59] Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Nichols, A.H. and Di Leone, B.A.L., 2013. Anything but race: Avoiding racial discourse to avoid hurting you or me. Psychology, 4(03), p.335.

 

[60] Jayakumar, U.M., Garces, L.M. and Park, J.J., 2018. Reclaiming diversity: Advancing the next generation of diversity research toward racial equity. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 11-79). Springer, Cham.

 

[61] Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

 

[62] Kaur, B., 2012. Equity and social justice in teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), pp.485-492.

 

[63] Tisdell, E.J., 2007. In the new millennium: The role of spirituality and the cultural imagination in dealing with diversity and equity in the higher education classroom. Teachers College Record, 109(3), pp.531-560.

 

[64] Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Nichols, A.H. and Di Leone, B.A.L., 2013. Anything but race: Avoiding racial discourse to avoid hurting you or me. Psychology, 4(03), p.335.

 

[65] Kaur, B., 2012. Equity and social justice in teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), pp.485-492.

 

[66] Blanden, J. and Machin, S., 2004. Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(2), pp.230-249.

 

[67] Lange, A., Vogt, C. and Ziegler, A., 2007. On the importance of equity in international climate policy: An empirical analysis. Energy Economics, 29(3), pp.545-562.

 

[68] Kupchik, A. and Ward, G., 2014. Race, poverty, and exclusionary school security: An empirical analysis of US elementary, middle, and high schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(4), pp.332-354.

 

[69] Kupchik, A. and Ward, G., 2014. Race, poverty, and exclusionary school security: An empirical analysis of US elementary, middle, and high schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(4), pp.332-354.

 

[70] Lange, A., Vogt, C. and Ziegler, A., 2007. On the importance of equity in international climate policy: An empirical analysis. Energy Economics, 29(3), pp.545-562.

 

[71] Brittain, J. and Kozlak, C., 2007. Racial disparities in educational opportunities in the United States. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 6(2), p.11.

 

[72] Tisdell, E.J., 2007. In the new millennium: The role of spirituality and the cultural imagination in dealing with diversity and equity in the higher education classroom. Teachers College Record, 109(3), pp.531-560.

 

[73] Schmidt, W. and McKnight, C., 2015. Inequality for all: The challenge of unequal opportunity in American schools. Teachers College Press.

 

[74] Tisdell, E.J., 2007. In the new millennium: The role of spirituality and the cultural imagination in dealing with diversity and equity in the higher education classroom. Teachers College Record, 109(3), pp.531-560.

 

[75] Kupchik, A. and Ward, G., 2014. Race, poverty, and exclusionary school security: An empirical analysis of US elementary, middle, and high schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(4), pp.332-354.

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Description

Papers must deal with the primary source material and a particular contemporary problem in law and ethics of interest to the student, in light of the legal tradition we will be examining. The topic must display an ethical dimension involving a present dilemma and then integrate the legal jurisprudence.

Formal requirements for the paper are:
1.       Duration: 7-9 pages (double spaced, please; no font preferred, but Arial or Times New Roman 12 would be welcomed).
2.       Footnotes: 75-100 (Uniform System of Citation) Footnotes are required in order that the source material can be evaluated when reading on particular pages.
3.       Source material: 20 differing primary sources in the form of actual text or periodical literature.  Web locations which are not primary sources of information (e.g., wikipedia, weblogs, facebook, myspace) are not scholarly source material.  Please cite to original scholarly sources.  Newspapers, news and press sites, journals and reports available via the Web may be (but are not necessarily) scholarly source material. Law reviews are scholarly source material.  Case law is scholarly source material  Statutes and treaties are scholarly source material.  Primary texts by legal scholars are scholarly source material.